Introduction to Criminology Instructor: Jorge Pierrott CRJ 270 Instructor: Jorge Pierrott

2 Where Do Theories Come From?

Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to answer the following questions: What is evidence-based criminology? How does the meaning of the word evidence in evidence-based criminology differ from the evidence found at a crime scene or the evidence used in criminal trials? What four eras have characterized the field of criminology over the past 100 years? What is a theory? What purposes do theories serve? What role do research and experimentation play in theory building in criminology? What is the role of criminological research in theory building? What is internal validity? External validity? How can threats to internal and external validity be addressed?

Chapter Objectives What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods in the social sciences? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method? What are some of the ethical considerations involved in conducting criminological research? How do criminological research and experimental criminology impact social policy? What sections might a typical research report contain?

Why is the Criminological Theory Important? SafeStat Offender Risk and Needs Assessments

Evidence-Based Criminology Founded upon the experimental method Emphasizes randomized controlled experiments “Evidence” refers to scientific findings A. Evidence based criminology is becoming increasingly popular. It is founded upon the experimental method and uses social science techniques in theory testing. “Evidence” refers to scientific findings, not to the kind of evidence gathered by the police or used in criminal trials. continued on next slide

Evidence-Based Criminology Increasing importance in the field American Society of Criminology Division of Experimental Criminology Academy of Experimental Criminology Journal of Experimental Criminology B) The use of randomized experiments in criminology was popularized by David Farrington, Lloyd Ohlin, and James Q. Wilson, who recommend the use of experiments whenever possible to test assumptions in the justice field. 1. The American Society of Criminology has a Division of Experimental Criminology. 2. The Academy of Experimental Criminology and several important new journals give evidence- based criminology a voice

The Evolving Science of Criminology John Laub’s eras of criminological thought Golden Age of Research (1900-1930) Golden Age of Theory (1930-1960) Empirical testing of dominant theories (1960-2000) Current era/21st century criminology contains “all possible offspring” of what came before Golden Age – is referred to as a period when data on crime and criminal behavior were largely gathered and evaluated independent of any particular ideological framework. The second era – had a focus on intellectual theorizing but no systematic attempt to link criminological research to theory. The third era – saw empirical testing of the accuracy of dominant theories. Scientific examination of the accuracy of criminological theories that had been advanced previously. The fourth era – all possible offspring of what came before. continued on next slide

The Evolving Science of Criminology Present-day criminology has moved away from armchair criminology and is more scientific. Meaning that evidence based testing is required in order for theories to be implemented. continued on next slide

The Evolving Science of Criminology Scientific criminology involves: The systematic collection of related facts An emphasis on the scientific method General laws, a field for experimentation or observation, control of academic discourse Gathering facts is part of criminology but does not offer explanations for crime. Contemporary criminologists are concerned with identifying relationships among observed facts and attempting to understand the cause of crime. Emphasis on measurement and objectivity gives criminology its scientific flavor. continued on next slide

The Evolving Science of Criminology Scientific criminology involves: Acceptance into the scientific tradition Emphasis on a worthwhile subject Modern criminology meets these criteria

Theory Building Goal of criminological research: Construct theories or models that improve our understanding of criminal behavior and help us create effective strategies to deal with the crime problem continued on next slide

Theory Building Theory A series of interrelated propositions that attempt to describe, explain, predict, and ultimately control some class of events Test by how well they describe, predict reality

Figure 2-1 The Theory Building Process

Uses of Theory Provide patterns for interpreting data Population Link studies together Other similar studies can be linked Supply frameworks within which concepts and variables have special significance Who does it affect, how does it affect society? Allow us to interpret the larger meaning of findings Death penalty – Is a moral issue? Because knowledge is built on experience and observation, the crux of scientific research is data collection Some researchers distinguish between pure and applied research Applied research is conducted with practical applications in mind so that the researcher is working toward a practical goal (reducing crime, evaluating police effectiveness, etc.)

The Role of Research and Experimentation The use of standardized, systematic procedures in the search for knowledge. Why is research important in Criminology? Types of research Pure vs. applied Primary vs. secondary Pure research is conducted solely to advance knowledge; it may not produce anything of immediate relevance or application 1. There is also a distinction between primary and secondary research Primary research is original and direct investigation Secondary research involves new evaluations of existing information which has already been collected by other researchers

Applied Research Applied research consists of scientific inquiry that is designed and carried out with practical application in mind. Meaning – A researcher is working toward some more or less practical goal. What’s an example of this? How to stop hate crimes? How to stop bullying?

Pure Research Pure research is undertaken simply for the sake of advancing scientific knowledge and “does not carry the promise or expectation of immediate, direct relevance.” Example: Benjamin Franklin proving lightning is electricity.

Primary vs. Secondary Which was primary and which was secondary?

Stages in Research Problem identification Development of a research design Choice of data collection techniques Review of findings

Problem Identification Choosing the problem/issue to be studied. Reasons may include: Political reasons Grant monies Personal interests Frequently involves testing hypotheses There are a variety of reasons for selecting topics, including political reasons (e.g., the availability of grant monies), personal interest on the part of the researcher, or a class assignment. The bulk of criminological research is intended to explore causality issues, especially the claims made by theories which purport to explain criminal behavior. continued on next slide

Problem Identification Hypothesis An explanation that accounts for a set of facts and that can be tested by further investigation Something that is taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigations continued on next slide

Problem Identification Variables Concepts that can undergo measurable changes Example: Changes in population, changes in arrests, citations – Something that can be measured. Operationalization Turning a simple hypothesis into one that is testable Making the concepts measurable turns them into variables Example: Actually measuring the number of crime during a specific period – Full moon example. continued on next slide

Problem Identification After concepts in hypothesis are measurable, hypothesis can be tested

Development of a Research Design The logic and structure inherent in any particular approach to data gathering Simple research design - One-group pretest-posttest O1 x O2 This design does not eliminate confounding effects O1 - Is the pretest – information gathered on inmate agressiveness prior to the introduction of dietary changes. x - Experimental intervention O2 – Posttest – signifies a second set of observations

Validity in Research Designs Internal validity The certainty that experimental interventions did indeed cause the changes observed in the study group External validity The ability to generalize research findings to other settings

Figure 2-2 Threats to the Internal Validity of a Research Design History – Events occurring between the first and second measurement. Maturation – Fatigue, work schedule changes for inmates who work. Repeated testing – people learn how to take a test – They know what the researcher is seeking. Instrumentation – Researchers or interviewers are replaced with others who have different standards. Statistical Regression – Changes may occur from the initial test to later tests. Initial testing may have been personal boasting. Differential Selection – Reducing the tested subjects to groups reduces the chances that significant differences will exist. Experimental Mortality – A group loses members in a greater number than another group. People being granted parole or expiring their sentence. Experimenter Bias – Favoritism or biased behavior toward selected subjects.

Figure 2-3 Threats to the External Validity of a Research Design Reactive effects of testing – A pretest may sensitize subjects. Self-Selection – Subjects are allowed to decide whether they should participate or not. Reactivity – People may not know they are part of an experiment. Multiple –Treatment Interference – One or more studies being performed on the same person can skew results.

Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research Designs Controlled experiments Attempt to hold conditions other than the experimental intervention constant Quasi-experiments Give the researcher control over the “when and to whom” of measurement (but not exposure)

Experimental Design Pretest-posttest control group design Experimental group: O1 x O2 Control group: O3 x O4 O1 and O3: pretests (information gathered prior to the introduction of the treatment) x: treatment or experimental intervention O2 and O4: posttests (observations after the treatment has been administered) continued on next slide

Experimental Design Randomization is critical to the success of an experimental design Subjects are assigned to study groups without biases or differences resulting from selection No self-selection allowed, no personal judgment used in subject assignment Controls threats to internal validity

Choice of Data-Collection Techniques Data gathering strategies provide approaches to the accumulation of information needed for analysis Selection based on: Ease/simplicity Cost Time Form required for data continued on next slide

Choice of Data-Collection Techniques Key issue Will the strategy produce information in a usable form?

Types of Data-Gathering Strategies Surveys Case studies Participant observation Self-reporting Secondary analysis

Surveys Use questionnaires or surveys to gather “survey data” May interview respondents in person, over the telephone, by e-mail, by fax, or by mail Free tool – Survey Monkey

Case Studies In-depth investigations into individual cases Life history – a single subject is the focus of a case study Suffer from high levels of subjectivity but provide the opportunity to examine individual cases in depth

Participant Observations Involves various strategies in which the researcher observes a group by participating, to varying degrees, in the activities of the group Researcher may operate undercover or make their purpose and identity known from the start continued on next slide

Participant Observations Main types Participant as observer Observer as complete participant

Self-Reporting Subjects are asked to report rates of certain behaviors, such as crime May provide information when official records are lacking Often considered a form of survey research Introspection/personal reflection techniques – purely subjective

Secondary Analysis New analysis or evaluation of existing data that was gathered by other researchers Secondhand analysis of information originally collected for a different purpose

Problems in Data Collection Scientific observation must meet two criteria Intersubjectivity: Independent observers report seeing the same thing under the same circumstances Replicability: When the same conditions exist, the same results can be expected continued on next slide

Problems in Data Collection Observations meeting these criteria may still lead to unwarranted conclusions

Review of Findings Most data subjected to some form of data analysis using statistical techniques Descriptive statistics: describe, summarize, highlight relationships within data Inferential statistics: attempt to generalize findings by specifying how likely they are to be true for other populations or locations

Quantitative versus Qualitative Methods Quantitative methods Techniques that produce measurable results that can be analyzed statistically “Mystique of quantity” Qualitative methods Techniques that produce subjective results, or results that are difficult to quantify Verstehen

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research Values affect all stages of the research process No research free from preconceptions, biases Control their effect by being aware of them at the onset of the research continued on next slide

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research Ethical issues do not affect validity but may impact the lives of researchers and subjects Protection of human subjects Privacy Need for disclosure of research methods Data confidentiality Types of ethical issues: protection of human subjects from harm, provision of privacy, need for disclosure of research methods, data confidentiality continued on next slide

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research Informed consent Strategy used to overcome ethical issues inherent in criminological research Inform subjects as to nature of research, their anticipated role, the uses made of the data continued on next slide

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research Institutional review boards Established by universities, research organizations, government agencies Examine research proposals to determine whether expectations of ethical conduct have been met before the proposals are submitted to funding organizations Institutional review boards have been established by some universities, research organizations, and government agencies These boards examine research proposals to determine whether expectations of ethical conduct have been met before the proposals are submitted to funding organizations They usually consist of other researchers with special knowledge of the kinds of ethical issues involved in criminological research

Social Policy and Criminological Research Ideally, research should significantly impact public crime control policy Realistically Public officials may be ignorant of current research Public officials may ignore research findings Discuss the three-strikes laws as an example of the dilemma facing criminologists who want to influence social policy on the basis of statistical evidence   Review Lawrence Sherman’s 10 principal elements of a viable model for keeping the promise of experimental criminology

Writing the Research Report Title page Acknowledgements Table of contents Preface Abstract Introduction Review of existing literature Description of existing situation Statement of hypothesis Description of research plan Disclaimers/limitations Analysis/discussion Summary/conclusions Endnotes/footnotes Appendices List of references continued on next slide

Writing the Research Report Refereed journals Journals that use peer reviewers to gauge the quality of the manuscripts submitted to them Manuscript submission requirements vary by journal

CLASS ACTIVITY Aprilville, a small town outside Bigcity, plans to implement a Neighborhood Watch program. The town mayor has asked you to find out if the program, once implemented, will have any effect on the town’s crime rate. Design a research study to answer this question:   Formulate one or more hypotheses and operationalize the concepts. Choose a research design from those discussed in the chapter and explain why you selected this design. Select a data-gathering strategy and explain why you chose this technique