1. Chapter 2 Sociological Investigation

2. Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.” “The US is a middle-class society in which most people are more or less equal.” “Most poor people don’t want to work.” © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

3. Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence “Differences in the behavior of females and males are just ‘human nature.’ ” “People change as they grow old, losing interests as they focus on their health.” “Most people marry because they are in love.” © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

4. Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation Scientific sociology –The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior –Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with our senses © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

5. Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation Interpretive sociology –The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world Critical sociology –The study of society that focuses on the need for change © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

6. Causation Cause and effect –A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another Types of variables –Independent: variable that causes the change –Dependent: variable that changes (value depends upon the independent variable) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

7. Causation Correlation –A relationship by which two or more variables change together Spurious correlation –An apparent, false, relationship between 2 or more variables caused by some other variable © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

8. Scientific Sociology Terminology Concepts–Mental construct; represents some part of the world in a simplified form Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

9. Scientific Sociology Terminology Measurement–Procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case Operationalizing a variable –Specifying what’s to be measured before assigning a value to a variable © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

10. Scientific Sociology Terminology Reliability–Consistency in measurement –Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of the subject matter? Validity–Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure –Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to measure? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

11. Correlation Does Not Mean Causation Conditions for cause and effect to be considered –Existence of a correlation –The independent (causal) variable precedes the dependent variable in time. –3 rd variable is not necessarily responsible for a correlation between 2 original variables © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

14. Scientific Sociology Terminology Objectivity –Personal neutrality in conducting research Value-free research –Sociologists as dispassionate & detached Replication –Repetition of research by other investigators –Limit distortion caused by personal values © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

15. Limitations of Scientific Sociology Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied Social patterns change Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

16. Gender and Research Androcentricity –Approach topic from a male-only perspective Gynocentricity –Approach topic from female-only perspective Overgeneralizing –Using data collected from one sex and applying the findings to both sexes © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

17. Gender and Research Gender blindness –Failure to consider the effect of gender at all Double standards –Different standards to judge males & females Interference –Occurs when a subject reacts to the sex of the researcher, interfering with research operation © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

19. Ethical Guidelines for Research Must strive to be technically competent & fair-minded Must disclose findings in full without omitting significant data –And be willing to share their data Must protect the safety, rights, and privacy of subjects © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

20. Ethical Guidelines for Research Obtain informed consent; subjects aware of risks and responsibilities and agree Must disclose all sources of funding & avoid conflicts of interest Must demonstrate cultural sensitivity © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

21. Sociological Research Methods Experiment–Research method for investigating cause & effect –Under highly controlled conditions Hypothesis–Unverified statement of a relationship between variables –An educated guess © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

22. Sociological Research Methods Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment Hawthorne effect–Change in subject's behavior –Caused by the awareness of being studied © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

23. Steps in the Ideal Experiment Specify dependent/independent variables Measure the dependent variable Expose dependent variable to independent variable Re-measure dependent variable to see if predicted change took place –If no change, modify hypothesis & re-test © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

24. Control Be certain the change in the dependent variable was due to the exposure to the –Independent variable, the researcher must keep constant other factors that might intrude Make experimental & control groups –Experimental: exposed to independent variable; Control: is exposed to a placebo © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

25. Survey Research Population –The people who are the focus of the research Sample –Part of the population represents the whole Random Sample –Draw sample from population so every element has an equal chance of selection © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

26. Questionnaire Closed-ended & Open ended: –Closed: A series of fixed responses; easy to analyze but narrows range of responses –Open: Free response; broadens responses; harder to analyze Most surveys are self-administered; pre- testing can avoid costly problems. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

27. Other Research Methods Interview –A series of questions that a researcher administers in person Participant observation –Investigators systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

29. Interplay Between Theory and Method Inductive logical thought –Transforms specific observations into general theory; “increases” from specific to general Deductive logical thought –Reasoning that transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for testing Deduction “decreases” from general to specific © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

31. Ten Steps In Sociological Investigation Select and define topic Review the literature Develop key questions to ask Assess requirements for study Consider ethical issues © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

32. Ten Steps In Sociological Investigation Select a research methodology Collect the data Interpret the findings State conclusions Publish the findings © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.