Introduction to Biochemistry IB Chemistry 1

Living Organisms Introduction Living organisms have to be able to: Exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Transform matter and energy into different forms. Respond to changes in their environment. Grow. Reproduce. 2

Macromolecules All of these changes are due to large organic compounds called macromolecules. A macromolecule is a combination of many smaller similar molecules polymerized into a chain structure. In living organisms there are three main types of macromolecules which control all activities and determine what an organism will do and become. Proteins. Carbohydrates Nucleic acids. 3

Cells The basic unit of life is the cell. The cell makes up all living organisms that we know of. Cells are in turn made of macromolecules that form inside the cell. Other macromolecules control the formation of these macromolecules. Metabolism is the breaking down or building up of macromolecules. Generally, breaking down macromolecules releases energy that the organism can use as an energy source. The building up of macromolecules requires energy, that is obtained from breaking down macromolecules. 4 4

Proteins Proteins Proteins are macromolecules that are polymers of amino acids. Structurally, proteins go into making muscle tissue, connective tissue, and skin, hair, and nails, just to name a few. Functionally proteins are enzymes which catalyze biochemical reactions Building up macromolecules requires energy and an enzyme lowers the amount of energy that is necessary. 5 5

Amino Acids and Proteins There are 20 amino acids that go into producing proteins. These amino acids are polymerized by a dehydration synthesis to form long chains of repeating amino acids called a protein. The arrangement of the amino acids in the polymer determine the structure of the protein which confers to it is function or structural attributes. 6 6

Amino Acids and Proteins The twenty amino acids that make up proteins, with three- letter abbreviations. The carboxyl group of one amino acid bonds with the amino group of a second acid to yield a dipeptide and water. Proteins are long chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. 7 7

Part of a protein polypeptide made up of the amino acids cysteine (cys), valine (val), and lysine (lys). A protein can have from fifty to one thousand of these amino acid units; each protein has its own unique sequence. 8 8

Animal Fats Animal fats are either saturated or unsaturated, but most are saturated. Unsaturated fats are believed to lower cholesterol levels in humans. Saturated fats and cholesterol are thought to contribute to hardening of the arteries. Fats are stored in adipose tissue which has an insulating function, a padding (protective) function, as well as a storage function. 9 9

Lipids: Fats and Oils Fats and Oils Humans take in amino acids and utilize them to synthesize the polymers that are called proteins. There are 10 amino acids which humans cannot synthesize themselves and must be in the diet, these are called essential amino acids. Humans also take in carbohydrates and use the break down of the carbohydrate as an energy source. When either of these is taken in in quantities above that that is necessary for the body, they are converted into fats in animals and oils in plants. Fats and oils are a long term storage for energy sources. 10 10

Triglycerides The triglyceride structure of fats and oils. Note the glycerol structure on the left and the ester structure on the right. Also notice that R1, R2, and R3 are long-chained molecules of 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, or 24 carbons that might be saturated or unsaturated. 11 11

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are a large group of compounds that are generally called sugars, starches, and cellulose (all of which are sugars or polymers of sugars) Generally sugars are a storage source of energy. By breaking sugars down into carbon dioxide and water, living organisms can release the energy that is locked up in them to use for energy requirements. Glucose is the carbohydrate that animals utilize mostly for their energy. 12 12

Glucose (blood sugar) is an aldehyde, and fructose (fruit sugar) is a ketone. Both have a molecular formula of C6H12O6 13 13

Classification of Carbohydrates A monosaccharide is one that is made up of just one sugar unit. A disaccharide is one that is made up of two sugar units. A polysaccharide is one that is made up of many sugar units. 14 14

Carbohydrates These plants and their flowers are made up of a mixture of carbohydrates that were manufactured from carbon dioxide and water, with the energy of sunlight. The simplest of the carbohydrates are the monosaccharides, simple sugars (fruit sugar) that the plant synthesizes. Food is stored as starches, which are polysaccharides made from the simpler monosaccharides. The plant structure is held upright by fibers of cellulose, another form of a polysaccharide. 15 15

Polysaccharides Starch is a storage carbohydrate used by plants. When plants photosynthesize the use the energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars and oxygen. Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate used by animals. Cellulose is a polysaccharide that is used in plant cell walls to maintain their structure. 16 16

Starch and Cellulose Starch and cellulose are both polymers of glucose, but humans cannot digest cellulose. The difference in the bonding arrangement might seem minor, but enzymes must fit a molecule very precisely. Thus, enzymes that break down starch do nothing to cellulose. 17 17

Specialized Biomolecules In addition to proteins, lipids and carbohydrates there are numerous other categories of biomolecules that are essential to life These substances may incorporate characteristics of proteins, lipids, or carbohydrates but have more specialized functions These substances include Vitamins Hormones Enzymes DNA and RNA