Unit 6: Learning A.P. Psychology

Essential Question How is behavior influenced by one’s environment, rewards/punishments, and social interactions?

Unit 6 (A): Classical Conditioning A.P. Psychology

Do-Now (Discussion) What is learning as a psychological process? What are some ways that people and animals learn from their environments? How can learning change one’s thoughts and behavior?

Learning Learning: A relatively permanent change in an organism’s thought and behavior due to experience

Associative Learning Associative Learning: Learning that certain events occur together Classical Conditioning: Association of two separate stimuli Ivan Pavlov John B. Watson John Garcia Operant Conditioning: Association of a response and its consequences B.F. Skinner

Associative Learning (Create List in Journal) Consider the following stimuli: With what do you typically associate each stimuli? The sight of dark clouds = The sound of a marching band = The taste of chicken soup = The smell of hotdogs and hamburgers = The feel of the warm sun on your skin =

Why Do We Associate? Why do we typically associate such events with one another? They typically occur with/as a result of one another Natural Stimulus elicits Natural Response (e.g. dark clouds = “rain”)

Associative Learning: Classical Conditioning Learning to associate one stimulus with another

Associative Learning: Operant Conditioning Learning to associate a response with a consequence

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov (Behavioral Psychologist) Example of associative learning A learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus Helps organisms anticipate events E.g. Dark clouds (natural stimulus) elicit “rain” E.g. Umbrellas (neutral stimulus), when paired with dark clouds (natural stimulus) elicit “rain”

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Why might psychologists be interested in studying Classical Conditioning in humans and animals? How does Classical Conditioning promote an organism’s survival?

Classical Conditioning What are some examples of things that you have been classically conditioned to respond to? What are some examples of things that your pets have been classically conditioned to respond to?

Review What is Classical Conditioning? How does it suggest that we learn? Differentiate between the following: Neutral Stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)

Unit 6 (B): Classical Conditioning: Expanding Pavlov’s Understanding A.P. Psychology

Do-Now: (In Journal) Pavlov’s Experiment in “Classical Conditioning” Identify the following components of Pavlov’s experiment. 1.__ Neutral Stimulus 2.__ Unconditioned (Unlearned) Stimulus 3.__ Unconditioned (Unlearned) Response 4.__ Conditioned (Learned) Stimulus 5.__ Conditioned (Learned) Response A. Bell B. Food C. Salivation (to Food) D. Salivation (to Bell)

Acquisition Acquisition: Classical Conditioning: Operant Conditioning: Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus Neutral stimulus begins triggering conditioned response Operant Conditioning: The strengthening of a reinforced response Neutral stimulus should come (.5 seconds) before the unconditioned stimulus

Acquisition The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) needs to come half a second before the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) for acquisition to occur.

Acquisition Higher-Order Conditioning: The conditioned stimulus in one experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus E.g. An animal that learns that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and may begin responding to the light alone

Generalization Generalization: The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses John B. Watson, Rosalie Rayner: “Little Albert”

Generalization Interpret this quote: “The cat, having sat upon a hot stove lid, will not sit upon a hot stove lid again. But he won't sit upon a cold stove lid, either.” –Mark Twain

Discrimination Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

pet dog may exhibit discrimination Can you think of an example of how a pet dog may exhibit discrimination of a stimulus?

Extinction Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response Classical Conditioning: An unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS) Operant Conditioning: A response is no longer reinforced

Extinction How could Pavlov make the conditioned response (salivating to the sound of a bell) become extinct?

Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished response

Learned Helplessness Learned Helplessness: The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated or aversive events

Learned Helplessness How might being bullied as a child lead to the individual experiencing “learned helplessness?” How might school leveling/tracking lead to the individual experiencing “learned helplessness?” How would you suggest the individual should work to correct this learned behavior?

Biological Predispositions John Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning but other stimuli (sight or sound) did not.

Biological Predispositions Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.

Biological Predispositions Psychologists may suggest that alcoholics use “Antabuse,” a pill that causes nausea when combined with alcohol The use of this drug may serve to condition the alcoholic to become nauseous when drinking alcohol (aversive conditioning)

Applications of Classical Conditioning 1. Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use. 2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

Applications of Classical Conditioning John B. Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom.

Review What is acquisition? Provide an example of the following elements of Classical Conditioning: Generalization Discrimination Extinction Spontaneous Recovery In what ways was the Study of “Little Albert” unethical?

Unit 6 (C): Operant Conditioning A.P. Psychology

Do-Now: (Discussion) Describe the following phenomena of Classical Conditioning: Generalization Discrimination Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Learned Helplessness What is Operant Conditioning and how does it differ from Classical Conditioning?

Classical Vs. Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US) Respondent Behavior Operant conditioning forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events. Operant Behavior

Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning: A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished by a punisher

Skinner’s Experiments B.F. Skinner’s experiments extend Edward Thorndike’s thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.

Operant Chamber Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the operant chamber, or the “Skinner Box,” to study operant conditioning.

Operant Chamber The Operant Chamber, or “Skinner Box,” comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response.

Shaping Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer: Any event that strengthens (reinforces) the behavior it follows A reinforcement is a reward

Types of Reinforcers

Types of Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus Often satisfies a biological need E.g. Pizza Secondary/Conditioned Reinforcer: A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer E.g. Money

Types of Reinforcers If a teacher wanted to reinforce students arriving to class on time, how could he or she employ the following types of reinforcers: Positive/Primary Positive/Secondary Negative/Primary Negative/Secondary

Schedules of Reinforcement Terms to consider: Fixed: Set/Pre-determined Variable: Changeable/Unpredictable Ratio: Number of times Interval: Amount of time intervals

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-Ratio: Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses E.g. Buy 10 coffees, get one free Variable-Ratio: Reinforces response after an unpredictable number of responses E.g. Slot machines

Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-Interval: Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed E.g. Weekly pay checks Variable-Interval: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals E.g. Pop quizzes

Schedules of Reinforcement Provide an example of each of the following schedules of reinforcement: Fixed-Ratio Variable-Ratio Fixed-Interval Variable-Interval Which one do you think is least effective? Which one do you think is most effective? Which one do you think is most addictive?

Schedules of Reinforcement

Punishment

If not, what other alternatives do you support? Punishment Do you feel that punishment is effective, and under what types of circumstances? If not, what other alternatives do you support?

Punishment Effects of Punishment on Behavior: Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten Punishment does not teach appropriate behavior Punishment causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence Punishment can teach fear Justifies pain to others Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems

Review What is Operant Conditioning? Describe the following types of reinforcement: Positive Negative Primary Secondary (Conditioned) Describe the following schedules of reinforcement: Fixed-Ratio Variable-Ratio Fixed-Interval Variable-Interval What are some ways that punishment affects behavior?

Unit 6 (D): Operant Conditioning: Expanding Skinner’s Understanding A.P. Psychology

Do-Now (Questionnaire/In Journal) Answer the Yes/No questions on Hand-Out 7-7: “Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire” Tally up the Yes responses of odd and even numbers: Sensitivity to Punishment: Odd numbers: Higher scores representing higher sensitivity to punishment Sensitivity to Reward: Even numbers: Higher scores representing higher sensitivity to reward

Cognition and Operant Conditioning Skinner acknowledged the role of one’s cognition on operant conditioning Cognitive Map: A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment E.g. after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

Cognition and Operant Conditioning Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Video Clip: Cognitive Maps How does the rat use latent learning in pursuit of food, after its path has been blocked?

Cognition and Operant Conditioning Can you think of an example when you experienced latent learning?

Cognition and Operant Conditioning Insight: A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

Types of Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic Motivation: A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake Extrinsic Motivation: A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Types of Motivation What is something that you are intrinsically motivated to do? What is something that you are extrinsically motivated to do? With which type of motivation is operant conditioning more effective?

“Consideration of Future Consequences Scale” Answer the questions on Hand-Out 7-4: “Consideration of Future Consequences Scale” Tally up the numbers of your responses: Reverse the numbers that you gave in statements 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, and 12 (i.e., 1=5, 2=4, 3=3, 4=2, 5=1) Next, add the numbers in front of all 12 items The higher your score, the greater consideration you have for future consequences

Biology and Operant Conditioning Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift toward their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors Marian Breland Bailey

Operant Vs. Classical Conditioning

Review What is a cognitive map? How did rats use it in operant conditioning? What is latent learning? Provide an example. What is insight? What is its role in problem-solving? What is the difference between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation? In what ways do organisms’ biology influence operant conditioning?

Unit 6 (E): Operant Conditioning: Applications of Operant Conditioning A.P. Psychology

Do-Now (Questionnaire/In Journal) Answer the questions on Hand-Out 7-8: “The Work Preference Inventory” Tally up the numbers of your responses: Intrinsic Motivation: Reverse the numbers that you gave in statements 9 and 14 (i.e., 1=4, 2=3, 3=2, 4=1) Next, add the numbers in front of items 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 27, 28, and 30 Extrinsic Motivation: Reverse the numbers that you gave in statements 1, 16, and 22 (i.e., 1=5, 2=4, 3=3, 4=2, 5=1) Next, add the numbers in front of items 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, and 29 Scores will range from 15-60 for both scales Mean scores: Intrinsic: 45 Extrinsic: 39 Higher scores indicate higher intrinsic or extrinsic motivation

Skinner’s Legacy Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

Applications of Operant Conditioning Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards. In School

Applications of Operant Conditioning Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership. At Work

Applications of Operant Conditioning In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence. At Home

Review Why were psychologists critical of Skinner’s theories of behavior? What are some ways that operant conditioning is applied today: In School At Work At Home

Unit 6 (F): Learning By Observation A.P. Psychology

Do-Now (In Journal) What is a behavior that you possess that you may have learned through observation? Who did you learn it from? Why do you think it became reinforced?

Learning By Observation Observational Learning: Learning by observing others Also called Social Learning Albert Bandura Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Learning By Observation Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward.

Observational Learning and Language How do you pronounce the word “orange?”

Observational Learning and Language

Observational Learning and Language Have you ever traveled to another country, or another region of the US, and found yourself speaking and/or acting similar to the people of that region? Why do you think your speech and/or behavior changed?

Mirror Neurons Mirror Neurons: Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

Learning by observation begins early in life. Imitation Onset Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV, in pulling a toy apart.

Imitation in Children Can you remember any ways that you imitated others (parents, older siblings, cousins, etc.) as a child? Can you remember any ways that your younger siblings, cousins, etc. imitated you?

Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” Experiment Bandura's “Bobo Doll” Experiment (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.

Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood, or TV) may have antisocial effects.

Applications of Observational Learning Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression.

Applications of Observational Learning What are some TV shows, video games, or movies that you were exposed to as a child that modeled aggressive behavior?

Applications of Observational Learning Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. Children modeling after pro wrestlers

Applications of Observational Learning Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.

Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial Behavior: Positive, constructive, helpful behavior The opposite of antisocial behavior

Review What is Observational Learning? How does it differ from Classical and Operant Conditioning? What are mirror neurons and how do they enable empathy and imitation? What did Albert Bandura conclude about observational learning through his “Bobo Doll” Experiment? What are prosocial and antisocial behavior and what are some ways that they are modeled?