PHI 312 – Introduction to Philosophy

The Classical Period Socrates (469 – 399) Plato (428 – 347) Aristotle (384 – 322)

Aristotle Joined Plato’s Academy when he was 18. Stayed for 20 years. After Plato died, he started his own school at the Lyceum. Peripatetic school.

Aristotle’s Influence In science, Aristotle wrote about anatomy, astronomy, geology, geography, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy he wrote about aesthetics, ethics, metaphysics, politics, economics, psychology, rhetoric, and theology.

Aristotle Metaphysics. “Plato is dear to me, but dearer still is truth.” Agreed with Plato that ideal forms exist – but not in a separate otherworldly existence. The forms exist in the objects themselves. Form and matter (substance) go together – form gives matter its particularity, whereas matter gives concreteness to Form. (Mitchell 67)

Aristotle No one encounters “treeness” apart from an actual tree. To get a better idea of what a tree is, one needs to observe many different trees and classify them. 6

These ideas influenced how the two went about their work. For Aristotle, if the perfect Forms can only exist in the material world, then studying that world is the best way to study reality itself. These ideas influenced how the two went about their work. Plato wrote a book (Republic) describing what an ideal society would look like. Aristotle studied 158 actual constitutions and their societies to see which was the most successful.

Ability to grow and reproduce Ability to think rationally Ability to move Ability to think rationally Humans Animals Plants Minerals

What is being?

Aristotle’s four causes: (Metaphysics) Material cause = the material from which something comes. Efficient cause = that which brings something into being. Formal cause = the essence of something. Final cause = its reason for being.

Aristotle’s four causes: Material cause = marble Efficient cause = the artist Formal cause = a statue Final cause = aesthetic value 11

According to Aristotle, matter has entelechy – “inner purpose” or “end” – potential. When its potential becomes actual, matter becomes real. Telos = purpose, goal

Implications for Ethics Plato’s ethics were based on the concept of virtue – the Good. The Good is the ideal model of the good. Conformity to the form of the Good is what makes a person virtuous. Plato did not clearly define what doing good really meant. The function of the soul is to make sure reason controls one’s desires and spirit.

Aristotle was much more practical Nicomachian Ethics – a book dedicated to his son. He said one can know the good and actually put it into practice. The primary purpose of a person is to guide action and feeling by reason (similar to Plato, but more specific). This process manifests itself in specific virtues.

All human activity is directed toward some good. Happiness is that good desired for its own sake – thus it is the supreme good. Humans are uniquely able to experience happiness. Happiness is tied to virtue. Virtue is the life lived in accordance with reason.

Moral virtue is acquired by practice. Harmony is important – we must not surrender to desire but we must not deny it either. We must find the middle way between the extremes: the golden mean. “Moral goodness . . . Is the result of habit.”

honest self-appraisal The Golden Mean cowardice - courage - rashness honest self-appraisal boastfulness - - false modesty 17

The goal is harmony – the right action, done in the right way, toward the right person, to the right extent, at the right time, and with the right motive. Situations change, thus our response. What does not change, however, is the principle of the mean.

Aristotle’s list of Virtues Courage Temperance Liberality Magnificence (excellence) Pride Good temper Friendliness Wittiness Shame Justice

Aristotle He was called by King Philip of Macedon to tutor his son: Alexander the Great.

Aristotle When Alexander died, Aristotle became the target of Athenian anger. Aristotle fled the city saying, I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against Philosophy. 3-minute philosophy 23