1. Chapter 2: Reality Two Kinds of Metaphysics: Plato and Aristotle
Introducing Philosophy, 10th edition
Robert C. Solomon, Kathleen Higgins, and Clancy Martin 1

2. Plato ( B.C.E.)
Born into a family of wealth and political power
In Athens, influenced by Socrates; turned his talents to philosophy
Conceived of a “philosopher-king,” the ideal wise ruler, who certainly did not exist in Athens
Disillusioned by Socrates’ execution, devoted his life to continuing his work
Set up the Academy for this purpose and spent the rest of his life teaching there

3. First set down his reminiscences of Socrates’ life and death: using the dialogue form, with Socrates as his mouthpiece, he extended Socrates’ thought into entirely new areas, notably metaphysics and the theory of knowledge
Plato incorporated a theory of morality into his metaphysics and politics, particularly in The Republic
Saw ethics as part of politics and the good life for the individual, in terms of the strength and harmony of the society

4. In The Republic, Plato argues against the various views of selfishness and hedonism that would interfere
Virtue, he argues, is the harmony of the individual soul as well as the harmony of the individual within the society
Since we have nothing from Socrates himself, it is difficult to know how much is original Plato and how much is transcribed Socrates
Predicate: that which is asserted or denied of a thing, which refers to a property of things; familiar predicates would be “is red,” “is an animal”

5. The Forms
Sometimes referred to as Ideas: ideal forms or perfect examples, the perfect circle or perfect beauty
Forms are the ultimate reality, and they are eternal and unchanging
Plato posits two worlds, the world of being (where the forms are located) and the world of becoming (where we live, the world that is always changing)
Our only access to the world of being is through our reason and our capacity for intellectual thought

6. The Myth of the Cave
Our world is like a set of shadows of the real world
It is not an illusion
It is a mere imitation of the bright originals

7. Forms as Definitions
Two horses have in common the Form horse, and you recognize them each as a horse because they share the Form of horse. Each individual horse “participates” in the Form of horse
Forms also explain how we know things outside of experience; e.g., each horse is also an animal
But participation is a notoriously unclear notion, unless it means just “member of the class”
Aristotle will attack Plato here

8. The Meno
Because we cannot learn what Forms are from experience, Plato argues that knowledge of the Forms is innate
Our bridge between the two worlds is the immortality of the soul
The example of the slave boy is what Socrates uses to demonstrate our innate knowledge of the Forms

9. Immaterialist Conception of Reality
The Forms exist independently of the material world
The truth of triangles is not contained in any particular triangle
Imperfection of a drawn triangle distinguishes it from the Form of triangle
Plato believed that beauty, justice, and the good have Forms

10. Aristotle ( B.C.E.)
One of the greatest Western philosophers, born in northern Greece (Stagira); father was the physician to Philip, king of Macedonia
Was to tutor Philip’s son, Alexander the Great
For eighteen years, a student in Plato’s Academy, where he learned and parted from Plato’s views
Turned to the study of biology, and many of his theories ruled Western science until the Renaissance
Was with Alexander until 335 B.C.E., when he returned to Athens to set up his own school, the Lyceum

11. After Alexander’s death, the anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens forced Aristotle to flee
Virtually created the sciences of logic and linguistics, developed extravagant theories in physics and astronomy, and made significant contributions to metaphysics, ethics, politics, and aesthetics
Metaphysics is still a basic text on the subject
Nicomachean Ethics codified ancient Greek morality; stresses individual virtue and excellence

12. The best life of all is the life of contemplation, the life of a philosopher, for it is the most self-contained and the “closest to the gods”
Such contemplation must be together with the pleasures of life, honor, wealth, and virtuous action

13. Aristotle’s Attack
Plato never explained the relationship between the Forms and particular things
Aristotle argued that the notion of participation is empty

14. Substance Substance is that which stands alone
It is independent being; a horse, a tree, and a human are all substances
Secondary substances are what Aristotle called the species and genus to which a thing belongs, and these are less real
He also claimed that forms are real but that they cannot exist independently of the particular substance

15. Descriptions of substance:
A substance is the thing that is referred to by a noun
Substance is what underlies all of the properties and changes in something. For example, you look different than you did when you were five, but you are still the same person
Substance is what is essential

16. Teleology Universe and all things in it have a purpose Four causes:
Material cause: the matter that makes it up
Formal cause: the principle or law by which it is made
Efficient cause: the person or event that actually makes something happen by doing something
Final cause: the purpose of the thing; on this account, everything has a purpose, not just things that are alive but also rocks, the stars, and even the universe

17. Prime Mover
Aristotle argues that teleological explanations cannot go on forever (also called an infinite regress) but that there is some ultimate purpose that explains all of the other purposes
The universe itself must have a purpose, a “prime mover” that Aristotle characterizes as “pure thought, thinking about itself”