1. Aristotle

2. First, Plato.. (428 – 348 BC) Perhaps the greatest philosopher ever!
Platonic world of Forms - ideals
Perhaps the greatest philosopher ever!
Plato explored the nature of ultimate reality, of justice, beauty, political philosophy, theology, cosmology, what knowledge is, and the philosophy of language.
“All European philosophy is but a footnote to Plato” (Whitehead)
Plato founded the Academy in Athens, one of the first colleges in the Western world, where the young Aristotle would study.
The Idea of the “Forms”
all realities in the world are reflections of ideal “Forms” that exist in a “world of forms”
Something beautiful, is a particular example of the Form of Beauty. A chair is a particular example of the Form of Chair-ness.
If we could see what these Forms are like in themselves, everything in the world would seem but a pale reflection of this ultimate reality.
The actual world of objects

3. Aristotle (384 – 322BC) Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning
- Aristotle was Plato’s student. He became a philosopher-scientist – set up his own college “The Lyceum” in Athens.
he believed that knowledge came not from thinking about ideal forms, but from investigating objects scientifically in the real world. So he did biology and physics, and came up with theories about how things work. He was also interested in ethics, psychology and logic.
He focused on getting knowledge through INDUCTIVE reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Reasoning from the general, to the specific. If the general premiss is true, the conclusion must also be true. If x (necessarily true)..then y (must also be true).
If all mortals die (necessary truth), then Plato must die.
Reasoning from the specific to the general - enough facts make me think I can derive a valid conclusion.
If x..then probably y.
If all cats I know purr, and Fido is a cat, then Fido probably purrs.
But to know this, I must scientifically investigate if the premiss is true.

4. My maths teacher is skinny My last maths teacher was skinny My next maths teacher will be skinny
Deductive or inductive?
Conclusion from true statement?
Or generalisation from examples?
What is the next number in the sequence? How did you work it out – by deductive or inductive reasoning? …?
All thieves will be prosecuted. Sally stole. Sally got stung.
All numbers divisible by 2 are even.
28 is divisible by 2.
Therefore 28 is even.
Two episodes of Big Bang Theory made me laugh. Big Bang Theory is always funny.
An apple a day keeps the doctor away. Joe eats an apple every day. Joe has never seen his doctor.
All three sided shapes are triangles. Therefore….… is not a triangle.
An object colliding with a 2nd object transfers energy to the 2nd object. So if this moving car hits another moving car, both will be mangled.
Tara got bitten by a dog. Now Tara is scared of all dogs.

6. When is a rabbit, not really a rabbit?
Aristotle thought about how you could describe things. What makes natural things the kind of things that they are?
Following his method of inductive reasoning, he looked at some rabbits, to see what would be similarities or differences between them.
Which things go to make up what is
Essential to a rabbit?
Accidental to a rabbit?
Once we know what is essential to a rabbit, we can say what rabbits are.
Or when something is not really a rabbit..
Accidental qualities
Essential qualities
What “accidental” qualities do you have, as a person?
What “essential” qualities do you think you have, as a person?

7. Aristotle’s Theory of Causation
Aristotle thought that nature is basically changeable – everything natural has a principle of change within it, that gives it certain disposition, to develop in a certain way.
But natural things are also material things, with a certain shape or structure, and with a certain way of becoming the way they are.
So to explain natural things we need to postulate 4 causes (MEFF):
Material cause: what “stuff” or matter the object is made from eg a statue is made of marble
Efficient cause: the primary source of the change
Formal cause: the pattern, or idea making it to be the kind of thing it is
Final cause: what the object is for. The final result of its development (in the case of nature)

8. A snowman A pencil A rabbit A man Work out the 4 causes for..
MEFF Material
Efficient
Formal
Final
Work out the 4 causes for..
A snowman
A pencil
A rabbit
A man

9. Natural Law according to Aristotle
What is Natural Law for humans, according to Aristotle?
What is its reward? Do you agree?
How does Aristotle’s definition of Natural Law (see quote) tie in, with his 4 causes, esp.telos?
What is the human telos?
So what sort of society will we rationally aim for?
And how does that link to the idea of Universal law?
Aristotle is credited with making the first formulation of Natural Law
“Universal Law is the law of nature, for there really is a natural justice and injustice binding on all men” (the Rhetoric)
He gets this idea from his philosophy of 4 causes: especially, that all natural kinds have a a telos, a goal to which they tend.
Natural law is therefore creatures becoming what they are meant to be, according to the telos they are born with.
For humans, what distinguishes us from animal natures, is our reason. So our telos as human, is act according to our nature = to act according to right reason
Natural law for humans, is to fulfill our nature, by acting according to right reason. This is living well : the perfectly happy life.  EUDAIMONIA !!!

10. N.L. according to Aristotle
Principle of change
Inductive reasoning
Inclinations
Essential nature
Natural Law according to Aristotle.
Final Cause/ telos
Theory of Causation
Write down some brief notes to explain 2 of the key words on the cards.

11. Homework
Assess how Aristotle’s theory of causation links to his idea of Natural Law.