1. Recap – Function Argument
What can you remember about the function argument from last lesson?

2. Putting it all together - The function argument:
Everything has a function (ergon), this is clear in Aristotle’s teleological world view.
Humans must therefore also have a function (ergon).
The only thing unique to humans, our characteristic activity, our function – is the ability to act according to reason.
To be a good X requires that X fulfils it’s function well, through the exercising of particular virtues (arête).
Therefore to be a good human requires that we act according to reason and practice those virtues (arête) that enable us to do so.
Therefore a good / flourishing life (Eudaimonia) for humans is one lived according to reason, in which the virtues that enable this are exercised.

3. Lesson Objective
Outline the difference between intellectual virtues and moral virtues.
Understand exactly what Aristotle means by “Virtues” and “Vices”.
Outline and explain Aristotles “Doctrine of the Mean” and how we can use it to moderate our actions in any given context.

4. What are virtues then?
According to Aristotle, a virtue (arête) is a trait of mind or character that helps us achieve a good life, which Aristotle argues is a life in accordance with reason.
There are two types of virtue – intellectual virtues and moral virtues.
Intellectual Virtues
Being able to make informed, rational choices about the right way to act in any given situation.
(We’ll discuss this in greater detail when we consider ‘practical wisdom’ later on in the topic).
Some examples of these virtues might be: Common sense, Wisdom, Understanding and Practical Skill.
Moral Virtues
Dispositions or traits of character that ensure that we actually feel and act appropriately in these situations.
Aristotle gave a list of some moral virtues, which includes: Courage, Generosity, Friendliness, Honesty and Temperance.
For the moment we’re interested in Moral Virtues – How do we actually use them to act morally and achieve Eudaimonia?

5. States of Character
When Aristotle says that Virtues are states of character, what does he mean?
We might also call states of character a person’s dispositions- how they might feel, how they think, how they react, the sorts of choices they make, and the actions they perform in different circumstances.
So as an example we might say someone has a short-tempered character if they are disposed to feel angry quickly and often; quick-witted if they can think on their feet; intemperate if they get drunk often and excessively.
What we find pleasant or enjoyable also reveals our character.

6. Virtues as Dispositions
Some states of character / character traits, for example being short-tempered stop us from leading a good life – these are vices, and they are often guided by our desires or passions.
Other traits of character, such as being kind, help us to lead a good life – and these are the virtues.
Remember: Virtues are traits that help the thing in question fulfil it’s function and become a good example of that thing.
So, in us, a virtue of character is a disposition to feel, desire and choose ‘well’, or ‘rationally’ which is necessary if we are to live well and so achieve eudaimonia.

7. Virtues and Vices – Think / Pair / Share
What kind of traits of character do you think would contribute to someone having a good / flourishing life (virtues)? What kind of traits of character do you think would result in someone having a bad life (vices)?

8. But how do we put this into practice?
Think back to the flourishing plant example for a moment, what would happen if:
We gave the plant too much water.
We gave the plant too little water.
We gave the plant just the right amount of water?

9. Applying it to life…
Aristotle compares living well with other activities, such as eating well or physical training. In these cases the good nutritionist or good trainer needs to avoid prescribing too much food or exercise or too little. We achieve health and physical fitness by following an ‘intermediate’ course of action.
An ‘objective’ intermediate (or ‘mean’) is a mathematical quantity, halfway between the two extremes, as 6 is halfway between 2 and 10.
But in human activity, the intermediate (‘mean’) is relative to each individual.
However, what this is differs from person to person.
A professional sportsman needs more food and exercise than most people, someone who is not as bothered about their fitness might need less.

10. This is another key phrase you need to know.
So back to virtues…
Now, in the ‘art of living’, so to speak, something similar applies. We can feel our passions / desires either ‘too much’ or ‘too little’. Virtue involves being disposed to feeling in an ‘intermediate’ way, neither too much nor too little. To be virtuous is to: “Feel passions at the right times, with reference to the right objects, towards the right people, with the right motive and in the right way.”
This is known as Aristotles ‘Doctrine of the mean’ – the ability to follow the virtuous intermediate / middle ground between the vice (opposite to virtue) of deficiency (too little) and the vice of excess (too much).
This is another key phrase you need to know.

11. The Relative Mean
It is important to note that Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean does not claim that when we get angry for example, we should only ever be ‘moderately’ angry. We should be as angry as the situation demands, which can be very angry or only slightly irritated.

12. The Plant Example
So just like the plant – we need to ensure we apply the right amount of virtues, at the right time, for the right reasons. Too much or too little and we’re no longer acting rationally. Our irrational passions are taking over.

13. Example: Courage

14. Truthful about oneself
The Golden Mean
Aristotle gives a number of examples of this ‘golden mean’, showing how we can easily fall into too much of a particular character trait (excess) or too little (deficiency) - I’ve filled the first one out for you, what might the rest be?
Vice of Deficiency
Virtue
Vice of Excess
Cowardly
Courage
Rash
Modest
Ambitious
Good tempered
Witty
Truthful about oneself
Friendly
Liberal (money wise)

15. The Golden Mean

16. Practical Wisdom
But how do we work out what the correct mean / correct way to act is?
For Aristotle the answer is practical wisdom.
Practical wisdom is an intellectual virtue of reason. Our passions and desires, we’ve said before, are susceptible to reason. There can be right and wrong ways to feel passions, and the right way to feel passions is determined by reason. If we feel our passions ‘irrationally’ – at the wrong times, towards the wrong objects, etc. – then we don’t live well.
Practical wisdom is what allows us to work out what the correct amount of any given virtue is at any given time.

17. Virtuous To Moral
Aristotle’s concept of eudaimonia is different from acting ‘morally’ as we would understand the term in the modern context. And so the virtues he thinks are necessary for a good life don’t match, and sometimes even conflict, with the moral virtues that we might accept nowadays.
For example, he thinks we should have ‘proper pride’ (contrast the Christian idea of humility) and that we should aim to do public works of magnificence and expense. Aristotle has a sense of the best life involving ‘cutting a figure’ in society, achieving a certain recognition and ‘honour’. Morality has since become more closely associated with self-sacrifice, and the traits we recognise as virtues more focused on securing welfare for others than recognition for ourselves.
Whether this is a good or bad development in the history of ethics can be debated.

18. Two types of virtue help us live well: Intellectual and moral.
Summary…
Two types of virtue help us live well: Intellectual and moral.
We need to use our rationality (practical wisdom) to control our desires and apply these virtues correctly.
This means following the ‘doctrine of the mean’ – the middle way between vices of deficiency and excess.
If we do this we will be acting in a rational way > following our ergon > ultimately achieving Eudaimonia.

19. Recap Questions
What are the two types of virtue according to Aristotle? What is each one for?
When Aristotle says that virtues are ‘states of character’ what does he mean?
What is the Aristotle’s term for:
The middle ground
Too much of a virtue
Too little
Can you give an example showing how to apply a virtue correctly?

20. Important Points To Remember:
‘Mean’ here refers to ‘middle’, but Aristotle is not saying that we should take the ‘middle way’ in every situation, or act moderately in every situation. Clearly there are some situations where a more (or less) emotional response is required, for example when protesting against extreme injustices a high level of anger is appropriate, whereas if someone cuts you up whilst driving it may be appropriate to get only slightly irritated.

21. Important Points to Remember
As we said before, virtues are also relative to particular people, a fireman running into a burning building would be expected to show a higher level of courage as his mean than you or I would.

22. Lesson Objective
Outline the difference between intellectual virtues and moral virtues.
Understand exactly what Aristotle means by “Virtues” and “Vices”.
Outline and explain Aristotles “Doctrine of the Mean” and how we can use it to moderate our actions in any given context.

23. On whiteboards:
Write a paragraph to summarise Virtue Ethics using as many as possible of the words below…
Good life Final end Means
Function Flourishing Eudaimonia
Virtues Doctrine of the mean Vices