© West Educational Publishing Principles of Learning C HAPTER 7 W hen we think of learning, we most often think of the formal type that occurs in school. Learning, how- ever, takes place continuously every day. EXIT

© West Educational Publishing classical conditioning - making unavoidable physical associations operant conditioning - learning caused by the consequences of actions we perform social learning - learning that results from watching other people cognitive approach- learning that emphasizes the rational and problem-solving thought processes Four Types of Learning EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Pavlov would later win a Nobel Prize for his work on the digestive system of dogs. Classical conditioning can be defined as what happens when a neutral stimulus evokes a response that was originally produced by another stimulus. An illustration of Pavlov’s classic experiment appears on the next slide. Pavlov and Classical Conditioning EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Pavlov’s Dog Experiment EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Receives Food (UCS) Sight of the Experimenter (NS) Salivates (UCR) Salivates (CR) Design of Steps in Classical Conditioning Experiment UCS = unconditioned stimulus UCR = unconditioned response NS = neutral stimulus CS = conditioned stimulus CR = conditioned response Receives Food (UCS) + Sight of the Experimenter (CS) Salivates (UCR) EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Conditioned fear experiments such as Albert’s experience would never occur today because of the existing ethical standards. Conditional Training: Albert and Peter EXIT

© West Educational Publishing A sudden loud noise (UCS) Startled and began crying (UCR) Rat (NS) Startled and began crying (UCR) Rat (CS) Startled and began crying (CR) John Watson Watson took a a baby named Albert and conditioned him to be afraid of white furry objects using Pavlov’s techniques. A sudden loud noise (UCS) + EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Mary Cover Jones used an early form of desensitization to prove that fears (phobias) could be unlearned. Peter, a young boy, had an extreme fear of rabbits. Jones gave Peter his favorite food while slowly bringing the rabbit closer and closer. Eventually Peter no longer panicked around rabbits. Mary Cover Jones EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Stimulus Generalization A response can be generalized to other like stimuli. Extinction If a stimulus is never reinforced, then the response will go away. Spontaneous Recovery After extinction, a response will suddenly reappear. Variations Within Classical Conditioning EXIT

© West Educational Publishing B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning can be defined as a behavior that is learned (or avoided) as a result of its consequence. Reinforcement is a key component. If the behavior is followed by a pleasurable response, then the behavior will reoccur. (I tell a joke… people laugh…I tell the joke again to a different group of people.) A rat in a Skinner Box EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Operant Conditioning Processes Primary Reinforcement is unlearned and usually necessary for survival. Food is the best example of a primary reinforcer. Secondary Reinforcement is anything that comes to represent a primary reinforcer such as praise from a friend or a gold star on a homework assignment. Punishment weakens a response by following it with something unpleasant. EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Generalization is a behavior that spreads from one situation to a similar one. (A baby will call Daddy “Dada.” When the baby sees any man, the baby calls out “Dada.”) Discrimination is the reverse of generalization. Some stimuli have pleasant consequences and some do not. (A baby gradually learns that only one person responds with a smile when called “Dada.”) EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Extinction occurs when a response is no longer followed by reinforcement so that a person will gradually stop making that response. (Tell a joke. If people do not laugh, you’re not likely to tell the joke again.) In shaping, successively closer versions of a desired response are reinforced (as in learning to play tennis). In chaining, each part of a sequence is reinforced; the different parts are put together into a whole (as in learning the steps to a dance). EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Do you want to stop a bad habit? Wear a rubber band around your wrist. Every time you engage in the bad habit, snap the rubber band! What conditioning process is represented by this example? EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Ratio A person must perform different (variable) acts before reinforcement is given. (Children in a school band selling candy have to ask every person because they don’t know who might buy the candy.) Fixed Ratio The number of responses and reinforcement never varies. A dentist gets paid according to how many cavities are fixed. EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Variable Interval The amount of time varies between reinforcements. Performance is steady but sluggish. (A person goes fishing and is waiting for the fish to bite.) Fixed Interval A set amount of time goes by before the reinforcement occurs. Performance is irregular and increases only before the reinforcement. (A worker gets paid every two weeks.) EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Albert Bandura and Social Learning According to Bandura, we imitate the activities and behaviors of those around us. Between the stimulus and the response is the “inner person.” Much social learning is observational. Children model their behavior after watching. EXIT

© West Educational Publishing This series of photographs shows children observing and modeling aggressive behavior. EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Cognitive Approach This approach emphasizes abstract and subtle learning that could not be achieved through conditioning or social learning alone. Some learning is not intentional, but occurs almost accidentally—a situation called latent learning. Expectancies are beliefs about our ability to perform an action and to get the desired reward. Expectancies affect learning. EXIT

© West Educational Publishing E.C. Tolman argued that animals and people use cognitive maps to figure out where they are in the environment. He showed that they use strategies to analyze and (sometimes) to communicate information. Cognitive Maps EXIT

© West Educational Publishing Summary of Main Topics Covered Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Social Learning Cognitive Approach EXIT