SOCIOLOGY 11 TH E DITION Jon M. Shepard Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

C HAPTER 1 The Sociological Perspective

Chapter Outline  The Sociological Perspective  Uses of the Sociological Perspective  The Social Sciences  Founders of Sociology  Major Theoretical Perspectives  Two Emerging Social Theories

Questions for Consideration 1. In what ways does observation of a parade help us better understand society? 2. What were the important aspects of a parade that the sociologists pointed out to help us understand the relationships observed?

Defining Sociology  Sociology is the scientific study of social structure.  Maintains a group focus.  Emphasizes patterned social relationships between members.  Uses social factors to explain human social behavior.

Two Key Aspects of the Sociological Perspective 1. Individuals share patterns of behavior with others in their group of society. 2. Sociologists can view social relationships from either of two separate levels of analysis: within a group or between groups.

World Turned Upside Down

Questions for Consideration 1. In what ways does looking at this map change your perspective on where the U.S. is in relationship to other countries in the world? 2. How might this change our perspective of international relationships, world occurrences, etc.?

Sociologists focus…  on the group, more than the individual.  on patterns of social behavior.  on social forces that encourage patterns of conformity.  on the effects people have on social structure.

Question for Consideration Can you think of an example, or examples, of “patterned” social behavior within your own society? …within other societal groups?

Levels of Analysis  Microsociology – interest in the interaction of people “within” social structures; investigates relationships within groups  Macrosociology – interest in the “intersection” of social structures; focuses on groups as a whole

Application of Levels of Analysis to Gang Warfare  Microsociologists would want to understand the relationships between members of the gang; the relationships between gang leaders and followers, or between gang members and the police.

Application of Levels of Analysis to Gang Warfare  Macrosociologists would focus on the social structures in society that promote poverty; the interrelations between the police, education/schools, employment, and deviance as systems.

Benefits of Sociology 1. The sociological perspective enables you to develop the sociological imagination. 2. Sociological theory and research can be applied to important public issues. 3. The study of sociology can sharpen skills useful in many occupations.

The Sociological Imagination  The Sociological Imagination is the set of mind that enables individuals to see the relationship between events in their personal lives and events in their society.

Intellectual Liberation of Sociology  Task of sociology is to reveal the nature of human social behavior so it often leads us to question our assumptions.  Sociology provides a window to the social world outside of our own.  Provides a mechanism for framing important questions about social issues.

Applied Sociology  There has been a continual disagreement within the discipline as to whether sociology should be a social problem-solving discipline (as it was at is origins) or be a nonsocially involved science.  Science is seen as “value neutral” which has dominated sociological thought for a long time.  Humanistic sociology and liberation sociology have gained considerable prominence.

Snapshot of America: Children without Health Insurance

Sociology & Occupational Skills  Employers are interested in four types of skills: 1. The ability to work well with others. 2. The ability to write and speak fluently. 3. The ability to solve problems. 4. The ability to analyze information.

Employment with a Sociology Degree  Social Services  Community Work  Corrections  Business  College Settings  Health Services  Publishing, Journalism  Government Services  Teaching

Sociology & Other Social Sciences  Anthropology – very closely related to sociology; yet concentrates on the study of “primitive” or nonliterate societies and focus on entire societies.  Psychology – focuses on the development and function of mental-emotional processes in human beings, focuses on the individual.

Sociology & Other Social Sciences  Economics - studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.  Political Science - studies the organization, administration, history, and theory of government.  History - examines past events in human societies.

Questions for Consideration 1. For what institutions in society, other than the family, (such as education) can you outline distinctive social science approaches? 2. How would you illustrate the different social sciences’ approaches to this institution?

Europeans Origins of Sociology  Sociology developed in the late 19 th century, born out of social upheaval created by the French and Industrial Revolutions.

Adam Smith  Adam Smith’s contributions to sociology: 1. He attributed much of human behavior to the influence of society. 2. He laid the foundation for a sociological theory known as symbolic interactionism.

Questions for Consideration 1. In what ways are “social change” and “sociology” connected? 2. Why is the “scientific method” important to sociology?

Founders of Sociology  Auguste Comte  Considered the “father of sociology.”  Believed society could advance only if social behavior was studied scientifically.  Positivism – the use of scientific observation and experimentation in the study of social behavior.

Harriet Martineau  Harriet Martineau  Contributed to research methods, political theory, and feminism.  Translated Comte’s Positive Philosophy.  Wrote first methodology book in sociology.

Herbert Spencer  Herbert Spencer  “Social Darwinism” - evolutionary social change led to progress.  Society is like the human body – each part contributing a unique function.

Karl Marx  Karl Marx  Believed that social scientists should seek to change the world rather than merely observe it.  Saw society as a set of conflicting groups with different values and interests.

Karl Marx  Karl Marx (continued)  Envisioned a linear progression of modes of production from primitive communism through slavery, feudalism, capitalism, and communism.  Class conflict – conflict between those controlling the means for producing wealth and those laboring for them.

Emile Durkheim  Emile Durkheim  Believed that social orders exists because of a broad consensus among members of society. Mechanical Solidarity Organic Solidarity  Introduced statistical techniques.  Suicide: suicide is more than an individual process.

Max Weber  Believed that humans act on the basis of their own understanding of a situation.  Verstehen – understanding social behavior by putting oneself in the place of others.  Encouraged value-free research.

Sociology in America  Like sociology in Europe, sociology in American was born during a time of rapid and disruptive social change.  University of Chicago housed the first department of sociology  The Chicago School.

Jane Addams  Jane Addams Rejected the common view that individuals are socially determined. Advocated applying sociological theory to social ills. Co-founded Hull House. Awarded Nobel Peace Prize 1931 for efforts in social reform.

W.E.B. DuBois  W.E.B. DuBois  Focused on racial discrimination the “the Negro problem”.  Worked for civil rights, and with NAACP.

Major Theoretical Perspectives  Each theory provides its perspective on describing how society operates.  Each theory can be placed within the context of macrosociology (functionalism and conflict theory) or microsociology (symbolic interaction).

Contributors to Each Theory TheoryOriginator(s)/Major Contributors FunctionalismSpencer Durkheim Merton Parsons Conflict TheoryMarx Weber Simmel Collins Symbolic Interaction Cooley Mead Thomas Goffman

Functionalism  Functionalism emphasizes the functions of each part (institution) of a society.  Functionalism focuses on social integration, stability, order, and cooperation.

Functionalism Assumptions of Functionalism 1. A society is a relatively integrated whole. 2. A society tends to seek relative stability. 3. Most aspects of a society contribute to the society’s well-being and survival. 4. Society rests on the consensus of its members (consensus of values).

 Manifest Functions  Latent Functions  Dysfunctions

Questions for Consideration 1. What values do you think most Americans would agree are central to U.S. society? 2. How do these work to promote stability? 3. What do you think are intended and unintended functions of education?

Conflict Perspective  The conflict perspective emphasizes conflict, competition, change, and constraint within a society.

Conflict Perspective Assumptions of the Conflict Perspective 1. A society experiences inconsistency and conflict everywhere. 2. A society is continually subjected to change. 3. A society involves the constraint and coercion of some members by others.

Conflict Theory  Power - the ability to control the behavior of others, even against their will.  Conflict theory assumes that social change in continual.

Average Income After Tax,

Questions for Consideration 1. How would a conflict theorist interpret this data? 2. In what way(s) might a functionalist agree or disagree with the conflict theorist’s perspective?

Symbolic Interactionism  Symbolic interactionism focuses on the interaction between people with shared understandings of symbols.  Symbol – something chosen to represent something else.

Symbolic Interactionism Assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism 1. People’s interpretations of symbols are based on meanings they learn from others. 2. People base interaction on their interpretations of symbols. 3. People can gear their interaction to the behavior they think others expect of them and they expect of others.

Dramaturgy  Dramaturgy – human interaction is equivalent to a theatrical performance.  Presentation of self  Impression management

Questions for Consideration 1. How might you apply the dramaturgical approach to your behavior during the past week? 2. What are some symbols that are important to the interaction between students, between students and faculty, between students and administrators?

Theoretical Criticisms TheoryCriticisms Functionalism Tends to legitimize the status quo. Neglects social change. Assumes that society benefits everyone. Conflict Theory Overlooks forces of stability in society. Assumes that only the ruling class benefits from the way society operates. Assumes the working class does not know it is subordinate. Symbolic Interaction Sometimes fails to take the larger picture into account. Does not consider the impact of social forces and/or social structures.

Two Emerging Social Theories  Feminist Social Theory  Feminist social theory links the lives of women (and men) to the structure of gender relationships within society.

Types of Feminism  Liberal feminism focuses on equal opportunity for women and heightened public awareness of women’s rights.  Radical feminism traces the oppression of women to male-dominated societies.  Socialist feminism sees capitalism as the sources of female oppression.

Postmodern Social Theory  Postmodern Social Theory  Postmodern social theory assumes that individuals are not autonomous and that the ultimate truth cannot be discovered.