Indian Policy,
Reservations in U.S.
Background Government to Government Relationships Treaties Assimilation Boarding Schools Dawes Allotment Act
Indian New Deal, Stopped allotment Reorganized Indian Governments Education Economic Dev Language and cultures Arts and Crafts
World War Two Over 25,000 All branches of military Volunteerism Women and men Integrated units Stereotypes Code Talkers
Post War Legacy Multi-tribal White world (racism & “the system”) Common problems Consciousness Honor and service Protect community and nation Education, voting rights, equality
National Congress of American Indians 1944 Denver, CO Collective political action Community support Voting rights, legal aid, education, health, sovereignty, political lobbying, land rights
“Termination Era” General philosophy in contrast to New Deal era. Termination intended to end the relationship between tribal governments & the federal government Termination era consisted of: Sovereignty Old land claims Relocation Assimilation
Post War Political Context Conservative Congress Cut federal spending on social programs Demilitarization Cold War Anti-diversity Rhetoric from Civil Rights Movement “Rural ghettos,” “segregation,” “liberate Indians”
Indian Claims Commission Land claims from 1800s Pay back tribes End financial obligations “Get out of the Indian Business” $800 million
Relocation Programs -1951: Branch of Placement & Relocation -Employment, training, bus tickets, housing -Chicago, L.A., Denver, Dallas, Salt Lake -1960: 30% in urban areas -Poverty and racism
Termination Program, s Dissolve reservations as sovereign places Integrated lands into county and state jurisdiction Land allotted to individuals Private property, taxable Erase the basis for communal landholdings, erase identity
Significance Termination legislation targeted over 100 tribes Terminated dozens Poverty and land loss Increased the importance of NCAI Galvanized tribes to fight against the federal government policies
Reactions of Tribes American Indian Chicago Conference 1961 multi-tribal gathering (67 tribes) University of Chicago National Indian Youth Council, 1961 “Declaration of Indian Purpose” Fishing Rights Treaties “Sit-Ins” Boldt Decision
Kennedy and Johnson, Great Society Area Redevelopment Act (1961) Community Action Projects (1963) Stewart Udall (Int. Sec.) Office of Economic Opportunity (1964) Medicare, Medicaid, W.I.C. Head Start
Shifts in Policy Robert Bennett CIA Vine Deloria, Jr. National Council on Indian Opportunity Review policies Rec changes Congress rejected termination
Indian Civil Rights Act 1968 Congressionally ended termination Bill of Rights and Constitution applicable on reservations Protected individual rights Undermined tribal sovereignty in regard to relationships between tribal governments and tribal citizens
“Militant” Indian Activism Occupation of Alcatraz Island, Taos, Blue Lake, New Mexico American Indian Movement Trail of Broken Treaties, 1972 Occupation of BIA Building, 1972 Standoff at Wounded Knee, 1973
Images from the Era
Significance of Activism Consciousness Strategies of organization Cooperation National media awareness Government accountability Treaties and sovereignty
New Policies Menominee Restoration Act, 1973 (Ada Deer) Overturned termination legislation for tribe Indian Ed & Self- Determination Act, 1975 Bypass the BIA Direct contracting Control over education, health care, economics
Conclusions Growing influence of federally recognized tribes Defeat of termination and related policies Preservation of land Semi-sovereign governments Political consciousness Moderate responses from feds Permanent presence in politics