2. American Indian or Alaska Native alone 2.5 million (26% higher than 1990) (0.9%) In combination with other “races” 1.6 million (0.6%) Total = 4.1 million (1.5%) (110% higher than 1990)

3. 100 million acres = 4% of U.S., BUT …..

4. Modern Indian Lands = 4% of U.S.? 322 entities in Lower 48 = 56 million acres BUT much of rez land is allotted ( non-Indian ownership)

5. EraPolicy trendGlobal trend 1880s-1920s: AssimilationImperialism/racism 1930s-1940s: AutonomyEconomic reform 1950s-early 60s: Assimilation Cold War/individualism 1970s-early 90s: AutonomyCivil rights/liberation Pendulum of Federal Indian Policy

6. Settled (extinguished) tribal land claims until 1978 Tribe paid estmated “price per acre” of the land at time it was illegally taken ($1200 each to Potawatomi) ICC did not return land; some tribes turned down $$ Indian Claims Commission, 1946

7. Force Indians off reservation by offering job training opportunities in urban areas. Individuals made to sign agreements that they would not return to their reservations. Urban populations grew in LA, NY, Chicago, Mpls, Denver, Albuquerque, OKC, etc. Relocation Act, 1956

8. Native Americans What were the issues faced by Native Americans? Ever since their defeat by the emerging USA in the 1800s, most Native Americans had been forced to live on reservations. On these reservations the opportunities were few. There was a lack of decent jobs and education was poor. By the 1950s Native Americans had some of the highest rates of alcoholism, mental heath problems, economic deprivation, illiteracy and lack of opportunity of any racial group. Assimilation The policy of Assimilation had begun in the 1870s and had become official policy in the 1920s under the Bureau of Indian Affairs The policy was an attempt to transform Native American culture to European- American culture and ‘civilise’ the Native American population It began with educating children away from reservations to re-educate them and force them to abandon their language and culture. This led to them not fitting in anywhere as they were rejected by both the Native Americans community and the White community. In the 1950s and 1960s US Congress adopted the Indian Termination Policy which gave Native Americans full US citizenship and bound them to the same laws as the rest of the population. It allowed states to take over Native American land. The policy had devastating effects on tribal culture and economic well-being. A sterilisation programme was also undertaken and it is estimated that 25% of women of child bearing age were sterilised during the 1970s.

9. -Freed successful tribes from federal gov’t interventions -Ended 109 tribes( were not officially acknowledged tribes) -Groups subjected to state/local control -Lost backing as a tribe from the Federal Government -Federal services lost; private lands lost via tax foreclosure -Major cause stimulating Indian rights movement; 13 tribes restoredTERMINATION (Assimilation) ERA, 1950s-60s Menominee terminated, 1961-73

10. Returning WWII, Korean war veterans fight for rights National Congress of American Indians, 1944 American Indian Chicago Conference, 1961; NIYC 1963 Activism in 1950s-early 1960s Iroquois protest at U.S.-Canada border for Jay Treaty

11. Loss of Native culture & languages, yet kept touch with rural reservation Increased contact among different tribes; growth of pan-Indian identity Common experience of urban poverty & struggle Exposure to civil rights activism, successes Effects of Urban Relocation, 1960s Chicago American Indian Center powwow

12. American Indian Movement, 1968 Founded at Stillwater Prison; inspired by Black Panthers Urban Indians monitored Minneapolis police brutality on Franklin Avenue Made contact with traditional chiefs on reservations; fused urban and rural activism

13. Indians of All Tribes occupies abandoned San Francisco Bay prison Cites law that unused federal property reverts to tribes First major national pan-Indian action Alcatraz In November 1969 a group of young Native Americans occupied Alcatraz island in San Francisco with the aim of raising awareness of the plight of Native Americans. The occupations was forcibly ended after 19 months but it had succeeded in bringing international attention to issues such as the unpopularity of the termination policy. It also saw the birth of the American Indian Movement (AIM) whose young members were idealistic and defiant. The occupation gave confidence to others who staged other demonstrations such as in 1972 when they occupied the Bureau of Indian Affairs headquarters in Washington DC, causing $1.5 million in damage.

14.  Wounded Knee Occupation AIM’s most widely recognised protest was at Wounded Knee in 1973. Wounded Knee was the site of a brutal massacre of Lakota Indians in the 1890s. In the winter of 1973, a group of armed Native Americans occupied the area in the name of the Lakota Nation. The National Guard was called out but the protestors were defiant. The government cut off electricity and food supplies, and finally, after 71 days the siege ended, with the government making nearly 1200 arrests.  The protests of the AIM brought publicity to the plight of Native Americans, and led to a number of positive changes.

15.  5 Month March SF-DC › Protest Violation of Treaties and removal of Native American from homelands › Last major protest act › Movement for rights headed to the court rooms

16.  In 1934, federal policy changed again with passage of the Indian Reorganization Act, which restored tribal lands and permitted tribes to reorganize under federal law for purposes of self-government. Since then, Congress has passed several other landmark statutes to strengthen tribal self- government, including:  The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968, which applied most of the Bill of Rights' requirements and guarantees to Indian tribal governments;  The Indian Self-Determination and Education Act of 1975 - which strongly reaffirmed Congress' policy that tribal governments should be permitted to control education programs, contracts, and grants affecting Indians;  The Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978 - which established federal rules to ensure that Indian children removed from their homes are placed with Indian families whenever possible to preserve cultural values;  The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 - which recognizes Indian gaming as a vehicle for achieving economic self-sufficiency on reservations, and details the authority and role of tribal governments, the federal governments and the states in Indian gaming;  The Indian Tribal Justice Act of 1993 - which reaffirmed the responsibility of the U.S. government to tribal governments, including the protection of the sovereignty of each tribal government; and confirmed that Congress, through statutes, treaties and administrative authorities, has recognized the self- determination, self-reliance and inherent sovereignty of Indian tribes.