Europe in 1558

What was Europe like in 1558? The advent of Protestantism in Europe put an end to its greatest unifying force: Catholicism. The Holy Roman Empire was battling against Protestantism, particularly in the Germanic states. France and Scotland were also drifting towards religious conflict. The Pope and staunchly Catholic countries such as Spain were committed to preventing the spread of Protestantism. The discovery of new trade routes and overseas territories meant that European monarchs broadened their horizons, but this also created new areas of tension between monarchs.

Spain Philip II ruled over Spain, the Netherlands, parts of Italy and Spanish conquests in the ‘New World’. Spain’s population was 3 times that of England and the treasures and raw materials of Mexico and Peru had left it considerably richer. Whilst revelling in his title of Most Catholic King, Philip preferred a heretic on the English throne rather than Mary, Queen of Scots who was seen as a French puppet. However, in 1559, Spain and France signed the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, which meant that Philip became uneasy at the prospect of having to ally with England against France. England had traditionally relied on the jealousy between France and Spain to help maintain its independence. Peace between these two would upset the subtle balance of power.

France France was England’s traditional enemy for a number of reasons: Its size – population 4 times greater than England; Its proximity (it was very close); Its alliance with Scotland; The claims of Kings of England to the French throne. France was Catholic and supported the claims of Mary Stuart to the English throne because she was half French and married to the dauphin. In 1559 England also signed the Treaty of Cateau-Camberis, confirming the loss of Calais. France now dominated the southern shore of the channel. In 1559, King Henry II died and was replaced by Mary Stuart’s husband, Francis II. The new king was controlled by Mary’s uncles, the Guise brothers, who aimed to advance Mary’s claim to the English throne.

Scotland In 1558 Scotland was ruled by Mary of Guise on behalf of her young daughter, Mary Stuart. In 1559, Scottish Protestants rebelled against Mary of Guise. The rebels’ success was welcomed in England (despite Elizabeth’s dislike of those who upturned the natural order of things) because France had access to England along the Scottish border. However, Mary of Guise seemed likely to overcome the rebels and reinforcements were sent from France.

Intervention in Scotland In 1559 a group of Protestant lords in Scotland deposed Mary of Guise. It seemed unlikely that the French would allow this situation to continue for long. Cecil worked hard to persuade Elizabeth that she needed to aid the rebels to prevent the restoration of French power. Elizabeth finally agreed to send financial aid and then military forces, but only after Cecil had threatened to resign. This aid was confirmed by the Treaty of Berwick in Cecil was motivated by the traditional Tudor priority of securing England’s borders. The intervention was successful – the Treaty of Edinburgh signed in 1560 saw the French agree to withdraw from Scotland, and a new Protestant government was established under Lord James Stuart, illegitimate half- brother of Mary, Queen of Scots.

Results 1.The ‘Scottish Problem’ had been resolved without war against France. 2.Elizabeth was now seen as the protectress of Protestant rebels – this would make it difficult to maintain friendly relations with Catholic monarchs. 3.Mary, Queen of Scots, religion and the succession ensured that foreign policy became increasingly intertwined with domestic policy. 4.The success of intervention in Scotland was attributed to Cecil.

Intervention in France In March 1562, religious civil war broke out in France, caused by the spread of Calvinism and by powerful nobles who had no strong monarch to keep them in check after the death of Henry II. The leading noble families, the Guise and the Bourbon, were divided over religion. Elizabeth came under pressure from Dudley and Throckmorton to send help top the Huguenots (Protestants), who were doing badly. She needed little persuading. The war went badly for the English as the Huguenots were disappointed with the level of English support and made peace with the Catholics – joining together with them to drive the English out of France. In the Treaty of Troyes, signed in 1564, French control of Calais was confirmed.

Results 1.Philip II complained that Elizabeth was supporting Protestant rebels. 2.Elizabeth had shown the French that she could make their life difficult, making them more likely to accept the new, Protestant regime in Scotland. 3.Elizabeth herself considered the military intervention a disaster, and returned to her policy of caution and reluctance to aid Protestant rebels.

Intervention in the Netherlands At least ¾ of all of England’s overseas trade passed through the Netherlands. Philip’s chief minister in the Netherlands, Cardinal Granvelle, thought that English traders were trying to spread Protestantism in the Netherlands with Elizabeth’s backing. In 1563 Grenvelle banned the import of English cloth. Elizabeth retaliated and stopped all imports from the Netherlands, ceasing all trading between the two countries. In 1567 Philip II announced his determination to crush heresy throughout the Netherlands and sent an army, under the Duke of Alva, to do this. Alva’s arrival in the Netherlands led many Protestant refugees to seek exile in England, despite the fact that Elizabeth condemned their rebellion against their rightful ruler.

Results 1.The danger of relying exclusively on trade in one item, to one market, was shown vividly. The English looked for new markets. Trading links with the Baltic and Russia were established. 2.Trade with Antwerp had always been one of the main reasons why England needed to maintain friendly relations with the rulers of the Netherlands. Changes in trading patterns were to have a major impact on English foreign policy in general, and England’s relationship with Spain in particular.

Intervention in the New World 1550: Spain had conquered Peru, Mexico, Chile and the Caribbean. The bulk of England’s maritime enterprise was piratical. The trading activity of John Hawkins (he created the English slave trade in 1562 from Guinea) and his attempt to break the Spanish monopoly in the Caribbean, sometimes financed by Elizabeth, resulted in maritime blockades.

Results Hawkins’ activities antagonised further the already strained relations between England and Spain. The fact that the Queen was willing to become involved suggests she was willing, in return for profit, to run he risk of antagonising Philp.