5 The Skeletal System.

5 The Skeletal System

Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes
Section 1: An Introduction to the Bones of the Skeletal System 5.1 Classify bones according to their shapes, and describe the major types of surface features. 5.2 Identify the parts of a typical long bone, state the locations of compact bone and spongy bone, and describe the internal anatomy of a long bone. 5.3 Name the three cell types in bone, identify their major functions, and summarize calcium homeostasis. 5.4 Compare the structure and functions of compact bone and spongy bone. 5.5 Summarize endochondral ossification. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

5.6 CLINICAL MODULE Discuss various clinical disorders associated with abnormal bone growth and development. 5.7 CLINICAL MODULE Describe various types of fractures and explain how fractures heal. Section 2: The Skeleton 5.8 Identify the bones of the face and cranium, and identify and locate the cranial sutures. 5.9 Identify and describe the surface features of the skull. 5.10 Label landmarks seen on sectional views of the skull, and identify and describe components of the nasal complex. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

5.11 List associated bones of the skull, and discuss the hyoid bone, including functions and features. 5.12 Define fontanelles, explain their purpose, and describe key structural differences among the skulls of infants, children, and adults. 5.13 Identify and describe the curves of the spinal column and their function, identify the vertebral regions, and describe the parts of a vertebra. 5.14 Describe the distinctive structural and functional characteristics of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae. 5.15 Describe the distinctive structural and functional characteristics of the lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

5.16 Describe the thoracic cage, and explain the significance of the articulations between the thoracic vertebrae and the ribs and between the ribs and the sternum. 5.17 CLINICAL MODULE Compare and contrast kyphosis, scoliosis, and lordosis. 5.18 Identify the bones that form the pectoral girdle, their functions, and their superficial features. 5.19 Identify the bones of the arm and forearm, their functions, and their superficial features. 5.20 Identify the bones of the wrist and hand, and describe their locations using anatomical terminology. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

5.21 Describe the hip bones that form the pelvic girdle, their functions, and their superficial features. 5.22 Identify the bones of the pelvis, and discuss the structural and functional differences between the male pelvis and the female pelvis. 5.23 Identify the bones of the thigh and leg, their functions, and their superficial features. 5.24 Identify the bones of the ankle and foot, and describe their locations using anatomical terminology. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Section 3: Joint Structure and Movement 5.25 Describe the basic structure of a synovial joint, and describe common accessory structures and their functions. 5.26 Explain the relationship between structure and function for each type of synovial joint. 5.27 CLINICAL MODULE Describe clinical disorders related to intervertebral discs and porous bone. 5.28 CLINICAL MODULE Explain arthritis, and describe its effects on joint structure and function. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

An Introduction to the Bones of the Skeletal System (Section 1)
Includes about 206 bones Also includes cartilages, ligaments, connective tissue Divided into: Axial skeleton Includes bones of the skull, thorax, vertebral column Forms the longitudinal axis of the body Appendicular skeleton Includes bones of the limbs and pectoral and pelvic girdles © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Axial and appendicular skeleton
Axial Skeleton (80 Bones) Module 5 Section 1 An Introduction to the Bones of the Skeletal System Appendicular Skeleton (126 Bones) Figure 5 Section 1 1 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Functions of the Skeletal System (Section 1)
Vital functions of the skeletal system include: Support Storage of minerals Blood cell production Protection Movement Functions depend on unique and dynamic properties of bone tissue © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Support and Storage of Mineral (Section 1)
Skeletal system provides structural support for body Framework for attachment of soft tissues and organs Skeletal system stores minerals Body needs to maintain normal concentrations of circulating calcium and phosphate Calcium and phosphate held in reserve as part of bone structure Calcium most abundant mineral in human body Body normally contains 1-2kg calcium 98% of that contained in bones Module 5 Section 1 An Introduction to the Bones of the Skeletal System © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Protection and Production (Section 1)
Skeletal system provides protection for tissues and organs Ribs protect heart and lungs Skull encloses brain Vertebrae shield spinal cord Pelvis cradles digestive and reproductive organs Skeletal system site of blood cell production Red bone marrow (filling spongy bone spaces) site of production for red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets Module 5 Section 1 An Introduction to the Bones of the Skeletal System © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Skeletal System and Movement (Section 1)
Skeletal system works with muscular system to allow movement Bones function as levers Change magnitude and direction of forces generated by skeletal muscles Allow movements from delicate fingertip motion to powerful changes in body position Module 5 Section 1 An Introduction to the Bones of the Skeletal System © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bone Classification (5.1)
Bones are classified by shape into four categories Flat Long Irregular Short © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Flat Bones (5.1) Thin, nearly parallel surfaces
Form roof of skull, sternum, ribs, scapulae Protect underlying soft tissue Extensive surface area for skeletal muscle attachment © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Long Bones (5.1) Relatively long and slender
Located in arm, forearm, thigh, leg, palms, soles, fingers, toes Femur (long bone of thigh) is largest and heaviest bone in body © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Short Bones (5.1) Small and boxy
Include bones in wrist (carpal bones) and in ankles (tarsal bones) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bones are classified by their shape
Flat Bones Parietal bone Long Bones Humerus Irregular Bones Module 5.1 Bones are classified according to shape and structure, and have a variety of surface features Vertebra Short Bones Carpal bones Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface Features (5.1) Bone markings
Characteristic external and internal features related to particular functions called surface features Elevations or projections for tendon and ligament attachment Depressions, grooves, tunnels for blood vessel or nerve passage © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface Features – General (5.1)
Head – expanded proximal end of a bone that forms part of a joint Diaphysis or shaft – elongated body of a long bone Neck – narrow connection between head and diaphysis of a bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface Features – Elevations or Projections (5.1)
Process – any projection or bump Tubercle – small, rounded projection Tuberosity – small, rough projection that takes up a broad area Trochlea – smooth, grooved articular process shaped like a pulley Condyle – smooth, rounded articular process © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface Features – Elevations or Projections (5.1)
Trochanter – large, rough projection Facet – small, flat articular surface Crest – prominent ridge Line – low ridge, more delicate than a crest Spine – pointed or narrow process Ramus – extension of a bone that makes an angle with rest of structure © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface Features – Depressions, Grooves, and Tunnels (5.1)
Canal or meatus – large passageway through a bone Sinus – chamber within a bone, normally filled with air Foramen – small, rounded passageway for blood vessels or nerves to pass through bone Fissure – elongated cleft or gap Sulcus – deep, narrow groove Fossa – shallow depression or recess in surface of bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface features of the skull
1 Surface Features of the Skull Sinus Canal or meatus Foramen Process Module 5.1 Bones are classified according to shape and structure, and have a variety of surface features Fissure Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface features of the humerus
2 Surface Features of the Humerus Head Tubercle Sulcus Tuberosity Diaphysis Module 5.1 Bones are classified according to shape and structure, and have a variety of surface features Trochanter Condyle Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface features of the femur
3 Surface Features of the Femur Trochanter Head Neck Diaphysis Module 5.1 Bones are classified according to shape and structure, and have a variety of surface features Facet Condyle Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface features of the pelvis
4 Surface Features of the Pelvis Crest Fossa Line Spine Module 5.1 Bones are classified according to shape and structure, and have a variety of surface features Ramus Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.1 Review Define surface feature.
Identify the four broad categories for classifying a bone according to shape. Compare a tubercle with a tuberosity. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Typical Long Bone Structure (5.2)
Epiphysis Expanded area at each end of the bone Diaphysis (shaft) Long and tubular portion of the bone Wall composed of thick layer of compact bone Articular cartilage Covers parts of the epiphysis that articulate with other bones Avascular Relies on diffusion from synovial fluid for nutrients and waste elimination © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Marrow Cavity (5.2) Space within the shaft of a long bone
Filled with bone marrow Red bone marrow – involved in red blood cell production Yellow bone marrow – adipose tissue; energy reserve © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Epiphysis Diaphysis Marrow cavity Compact bone Epiphysis
Features of a long bone Epiphysis Diaphysis Marrow cavity Compact bone Module 5.2 Long bones have a rich blood supply Articular cartilage Epiphysis Figure 1 – 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Long Bone Components (5.2)
Epiphysis Composed mostly of spongy bone Network of struts and plates Resembles latticework Spongy bone covered with thin layer of compact bone Periosteum Connective tissue wrapper around superficial layer of compact bone Isolates bone from surrounding tissues Plays a role in bone growth and repair Extensive network of arteries and veins in epiphysis and shaft © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Extensive blood supply in bones
Epiphyseal artery and vein Spongy bone in the epiphysis Periosteum Extensive network of arteries and veins Compact bone Marrow cavity Module 5.2 Long bones have a rich blood supply Figure 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Collagen and Calcium Phosphate (5.2)
Bones composed of: Collagen One-third of weight of bone Strong and flexible Bends if compressed Calcified matrix (calcium phosphate) Two-thirds of weight of bone Found in crystals Hard, inflexible, brittle Combination of collagen and calcified crystals make bone strong, somewhat flexible, and highly resistant to shattering © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bone without calcified matrix
Module 5.2 Long bones have a rich blood supply Figure 4 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.2 Review List the major parts of a long bone.
Describe the function of the marrow cavity. How would the compressive strength of a bone be affected if the ratio of collagen to calcium phosphate increased? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Osteocytes (5.3) Mature bone cells that maintain matrix
Secrete chemicals that dissolve matrix Rebuild matrix – stimulating deposition of mineral crystals Matrix formed in layers – lamellae Osteocytes in lacuna Processes of osteocytes extend into canaliculi Play role in bone repair Cannot divide © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Osteoblasts (5.3) Produce new bone matrix
Process called ossification Make and release proteins and other organic compounds of the matrix Osteocytes develop from osteoblasts that are surrounded by matrix © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Osteoclasts (5.3) Giant cells with 50 or more nuclei
Derived from same stem cells as monocytes and macrophages Remove and recycle bone matrix Secrete acids and proteolytic enzymes to dissolve matrix and release stored minerals Process called osteolysis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bone contains osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
Lamellae Osteoclast Osteocytes in lacunae Canaliculi interconnect the lacunae Osteoblast Module 5.3 Bone has a calcified matrix associated with osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts Uncalcified organic matrix Section of long bone Figure 1 – 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Osteon Structure (5.3) Osteon or Haversian system
Basic functional unit of mature compact bone Central canal – contains arteries and veins Matrix in concentric rings around central canal © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

An osteon is the basic functional unit of mature compact bone
Central canal Osteon Module 5.3 Bone has a calcified matrix associated with osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts Osteocytes in lacunae Compact bone LM x 375 Figure 4 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Calcium Balance (5.3) Calcium ion concentrations closely regulated
Rarely more than 10 percent fluctuation Homeostatic regulation involves: Skeleton Osteoclasts erode matrix and release calcium Osteoblasts use calcium to deposit new matrix Intestines Calcium and phosphate absorbed from the diet Kidneys Varying levels of calcium and phosphate ions lost in urine © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Homeostatic regulation of calcium ion levels
Calcium and phosphate ions are lost in the urine. Normal Ca2+ levels in plasma Calcium and phosphate ions are absorbed in the intestines. Bone Balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity is hormonally regulated. Module 5.3 Bone has a calcified matrix associated with osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts Figure 5 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.3 Review Define osteocyte, osteoblast, and osteoclast.
What is the basic functional unit of mature compact bone? If osteoclast activity exceeds osteoblast activity in a bone, what would be the effect on the bone? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Compact and Spongy Bone (5.4)
Compact bone Osteons parallel to long axis of bone composed of: Concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix with a Central canal in the middle Spongy bone Network of struts and plates called trabeculae No capillaries or venules in matrix Lighter than compact bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Compact and spongy bone structure
Arteriole (small artery) and venule (small vein) Central canal Lamellae Canaliculi Endosteum Periosteum Vein Artery Module 5.4 Compact bone consists of parallel osteons, and spongy bone consists of a network of trabeculae Trabeculae Figure 1 – 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Appositional Growth (5.4)
Diameter of bone enlarges through appositional growth Occurs at outer surface Cells in inner layer of periosteum differentiate into osteoblasts Bone matrix added to the surface Osteoblasts trapped between new lamellae differentiate into osteocytes Collagen fibers from tendons, ligaments, joint capsule cemented into lamellae as perforating fibers © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Appositional growth model
Additional lamellae Periosteum Periosteum Module 5.4 Compact bone consists of parallel osteons, and spongy bone consists of a network of trabeculae Perforating fibers Figure 4 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Endosteum (5.4) Incomplete cell layer lining marrow cavity
Active in bone growth, repair, and remodeling Covers trabeculae of spongy bone Lines inner surface of central canal Exposed sites of matrix where osteoclasts and osteoblasts act © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Endosteum lining the marrow cavity
Osteoclast Lamellae Osteocyte Stem cell Module 5.4 Compact bone consists of parallel osteons, and spongy bone consists of a network of trabeculae New organic matrix Osteoblast Figure 5 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.4 Review Define appositional growth.
Distinguish between periosteum and endosteum. A sample of bone has lamellae that are not arranged in osteons. Is the sample more likely from the epiphysis or from the diaphysis? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Endochondral Ossification (5.5)
Most common method of bone formation Involves replacement of cartilage with bone Begins with cartilage model Cartilage model enlarges Chondrocytes near center of shaft enlarge Enlarged chondrocytes die and disintegrate Leaving cavities within cartilage © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Blood vessels grow around edge of cartilage model Cells of perichondrium convert to osteoblasts Shaft of cartilage ensheathed in superficial layer of bone Blood vessels penetrate cartilage into central region Entering fibroblasts differentiate into osteoblasts Begin producing spongy bone at ossification center Bone formation spreads along shaft toward both ends © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Growth continues along with remodeling Marrow cavity created Osseous tissue of shaft thickens Cartilage near epiphyses is replaced by bone Capillaries and osteoblasts migrate into epiphyses Ossification centers form in epiphyses Epiphyses filled with spongy bone Articular cartilage on surface by joint cavity Epiphyseal cartilage separates epiphysis from diaphysis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Endochondral bone formation
Hyaline cartilage Articular cartilage Spongy bone Epiphysis Enlarging chondrocytes within calcifying matrix Epiphysis Marrow cavity Epiphyseal cartilage Marrow cavity Blood vessel Ossification center Periosteum Diaphysis Compact bone Superficial bone Diaphysis Perichondrium Spongy bone Metaphysis Bone formation Module 5.5 The most common method of bone formation involves the replacement of cartilage with bone Ossification center Hyaline cartilage Figure 1 – 6 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Intramembranous Ossification (5.5)
Flat bones form by intramembranous ossification Stem cells differentiate into osteoblasts within embryonic or fibrous connective tissue Occurs in deeper dermal layers Resulting bones – membrane bones Examples: Lower jaw Skull bones Patella © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bone formation at 16 weeks
Flat bones forming through intramembranous ossification Long bones forming through endochondral ossification Module 5.5 The most common method of bone formation involves the replacement of cartilage with bone Figure 7 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Epiphyseal Line (5.5) Growth spurt at puberty in response to:
Sex hormones Growth hormone Thyroid hormone Osteoblasts produce bone faster than chondrocytes produce epiphyseal cartilage Epiphyseal cartilage thins and disappears Former location seen on x-rays as epiphyseal line © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.5 Review Describe endochondral ossification.
During intramembranous ossification, which type of tissue is replaced by bone? How could x-rays of the femur be used to determine whether a person has reached full height? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Atypical Skeletal Growth (5.6)
Pituitary growth failure Inadequate growth hormone production Reduced epiphyseal cartilage activity; abnormally short bones Rare in United States; children treated with synthetic human growth hormone Achondroplasia Epiphyseal cartilage of long bones grows slowly Short, stocky limbs result Trunk normal size © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Pituitary growth failure
Module 5.6 Abnormalities of bone growth and devealopment produce recognizable physical signs Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Marfan's Syndrome (5.6) Inherited metabolic condition
Excessive cartilage formation at epiphyseal cartilages Results in very tall person with long, slender limbs Affects other connective tissues throughout body © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Gigantism and Acromegaly (5.6)
Overproduction of growth hormone before puberty Produces height over 2.7 m (8 ft. 11 in.) Puberty often delayed Acromegaly Overproduction of growth hormone after epiphyseal cartilages close Bones get thicker, not longer, especially face, jaw, and hands © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Heterotopic or Ectopic Bones (5.6)
Abnormal condition where stem cells in any connective tissue develop in osteoblasts Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) Single gene mutation Causes deposition of bone around skeletal muscles No effective treatment © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP)
Module 5.6 Abnormalities of bone growth and development produce recognizable physical signs Figure 5 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.6 Review Describe Marfan's syndrome.
Compare gigantism with acromegaly. Why is pituitary growth failure less common today in the United States? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Fracture and Repair (5.7) A crack or break in bone is called a fracture Repair of fracture involves four steps Fracture hematoma (large blood clot) develops within several hours Internal callus of spongy bone forms on inner edges; external callus of cartilage and bone stabilizes outer edges Cartilage of external callus is replaced by bone; bone fragments and dead bone are removed and replaced Remodeling over time eliminates evidence of fracture © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Repair of a Fracture Spongy bone of internal callus Cartilage
of external callus Fracture hematoma Fracture hematoma External callus Module 5.7 A fracture is a crack or a break in a bone Spongy bone of external callus Internal callus External callus Dead bone Bone fragments Periosteum Figure 1 – 4 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic Types of Fractures (5.7)
Fractures named according to external appearance, location, nature of break Two broad categories Closed (simple) fractures – completely internal; no break in skin Open (compound) fractures – projects through skin Increased risk of infection or uncontrolled bleeding © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Specific Types of Fractures (5.7)
Transverse fractures – break in shaft across long axis Spiral fractures – produced by twisting stresses Displaced fractures – produce abnormal bone alignment Nondisplaced fractures – keep normal alignment of bones Compression fractures – occur in vertebrae subjected to extreme stresses Greenstick fractures – only one side of shaft broken; other side bent Generally occur in children © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Specific Types of Fractures (5.7)
Comminuted fractures – bone is shattered into many fragments Epiphyseal fractures – occur where bone matrix being calcified Require careful treatment to avoid stopping bone growth Pott's fracture – occurs at ankle; affects both bones of the leg Colles fracture – break in distal portion of radius © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Types of Fractures Transverse fractures Spiral Displaced Compression
Greenstick fracture Comminuted Epiphyseal fractures Pott's Colles Module 5.7 A fracture is a crack or a break in a bone Figure 5 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.7 Review Define open fracture and closed fracture.
List the steps involved in fracture repair, beginning just after the fracture occurs. When during fracture repair does an external callus form? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Skeleton (Section 2)
Axial skeleton – bones of skull and associated bones, thoracic cage, vertebral column Supports and protects brain and spinal cord Provides attachment surface for muscles that: Adjust position of head, neck, and trunk Perform respiratory movements Stabilize parts of appendicular skeleton supporting limbs Appendicular skeleton – bones of limbs and supporting girdles that connect limbs to trunk © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON 126
Skeletal system SKELETAL SYSTEM 206 80 AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON 126 Cranium 8 Clavicle 2 Pectoral girdle 4 Face 14 2 Skull and associated bones Scapula 29 Auditory ossicles 6 Humerus 2 Hyoid 1 Radius 2 Ulna 2 Sternum 1 Upper limbs 60 Thoracic cage 25 Ribs 24 Carpal bones 16 Metacarpal bones 10 Phalanges (proximal, middle, distal) 28 Hip bone (coxal bone) 2 Pelvic girdle 2 Vertebrae 24 Module 5 Section 2 The Skeleton Vertebral column Femur 2 26 Sacrum 1 Patella 2 Coccyx 1 Tibia 2 Fibula 2 Lower limbs 60 Tarsal bones 14 Metatarsal bones 10 Phalanges 28 Figure 5 Section 2 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Function of Facial Bones (5.8)
Protect and support entrance to digestive and respiratory tracts Provide areas for attachment of muscles controlling facial expression and assisting in eating © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Fourteen Facial Bones (5.8)
Nasal bones – support superior portion of bridge of nose Lacrimal bones – form part of medial wall of orbit Palatine bones – form posterior portion of hard palate and part of floor of orbit Zygomatic bones – form part of cheekbone and part of lateral wall of orbit Maxillae – support upper teeth and form inferior orbital rim, upper jaw, and most of hard palate Inferior nasal conchae – increase turbulence in nasal cavity Vomer – forms inferior portion of bony nasal septum Mandible – forms lower jaw © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cranial Bones (5.8) Form cranium, which protects brain
Blood vessels, nerves, membranes attached to inner surface Outer surface attachment point for muscles that move eyes, jaw, head Frontal bone – forms anterior portion of cranium and roof of orbits; contains frontal sinuses Sphenoid – forms part of floor of cranium; cross-brace strengthens sides of skull Ethmoid – forms anteromedial floor of cranium, roof of nasal cavity, part of nasal septum and medial orbital wall © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Facial Bones Cranial Bones Coronal suture Nasal bones Parietal bone
Anterior view of the skull Facial Bones Cranial Bones Coronal suture Nasal bones Parietal bone Lacrimal bones Frontal bone Palatine bones Sphenoid Zygomatic bones Maxillae Ethmoid Inferior nasal conchae Vomer Mandible Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cranial Bones Seen on Posterior Skull (5.8)
Parietal bones – form part of superior and lateral surfaces of cranium Occipital bone – contributes to posterior, lateral, and inferior cranial surface External occipital crest – attachment point for ligament that helps stabilize vertebrae of neck Temporal bones – form part of lateral wall of cranium Articulate with mandible and facial bones Surround sense organs of inner ear Attachment site for muscles that close jaw and move head © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sutures (5.8) Connections between skull bones of adults; held together by dense fibrous connective tissue – immovable joints called sutures Coronal suture – attaches frontal bone to parietal bones Sagittal suture – attaches parietal bones to each other Squamous suture – attaches temporal bones to parietal bones Lambdoid suture – attaches occipital bone to parietal bones © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cranial Bones Sutures Parietal bone Coronal suture Occipital bone
Posterior view of the skull Cranial Bones Sutures Parietal bone Coronal suture Occipital bone Sagittal suture Temporal bone Squamous suture Lambdoid suture External occipital crest Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Mandible

Module 5.8 Review Identify the facial bones.
Quincy suffers a hit to the skull that fractures the right superior lateral surface of his cranium. Which bone is fractured? Identify the following bones as either a facial bone or a cranial bone: vomer, ethmoid, sphenoid, temporal, and inferior nasal conchae. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface Features on the Skull – Lateral View (5.9)
Frontal squama (forehead) Forms anterior, superior portion of cranium Superior and inferior temporal lines Low ridges; attachment points for temporalis muscle Squamous part (squama) of temporal bone Convex, irregular surface borders squamous suture External acoustic meatus Canal beginning on lateral surface and ending at tympanic membrane (eardrum) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Processes on the Skull – Lateral View (5.9)
Mastoid process – attachment site for muscles that rotate or tilt head Condylar process – articulates with temporal bone Styloid process – attached to several tendons and to ligaments that support hyoid bone Coronoid process – insertion point for temporalis muscle Zygomatic process of temporal bone – articulates with temporal process of zygomatic bone to form zygomatic arch Mental protuberance – attachment site for facial muscles Alveolar processes– support upper and lower teeth © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lateral view of the skull
Frontal squama Coronal suture Superior and inferior temporal lines Squamous part of temporal bone Squamous suture Sphenoid Frontal bone Parietal bone External acoustic meatus Ethmoid Lacrimal bone Temporal bone Nasal bone Lambdoid suture Maxilla Zygomatic bone Mastoid process Alveolar processes Occipital bone Module 5.9 Surface features of the skull are functional landmarks Condylar process Mandible Mental protuberance Zygomatic arch Coronoid process Styloid process Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Surface Features on the Skull – Inferior View (5.9)
Mandibular fossa – site of articulation with mandible Occipital condyles – sites of articulation between skull and first vertebra Foramina Foramen ovale – passage for nerves innervating jaws Carotid canal – passage for internal carotid artery Jugular foramen – passage for internal jugular vein Foramen magnum – surrounds connection between brain and spinal cord © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Inferior view of the skull
Zygomatic bone Frontal bone Palatine bone Maxilla Vomer Sphenoid Foramina Zygomatic arch Foramen ovale Styloid process Carotid canal Mandibular fossa Jugular foramen Temporal bone Occipital condyles Module 5.9 Surface features of the skull are functional landmarks Foramen magnum Occipital bone Lambdoid suture External occipital crest Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.9 Review Identify the bone containing the carotid canal and name the structure that runs through this passageway. Name the bone and its foramen which forms the passageway for the spinal cord. The alveolar processes perform what functions in which bones? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Landmarks Visible in Horizontal Section of the Skull (5.10)
Crista galli Ridge projecting superior to cribriform plate Attachment point for falx cerebri (membrane that stabilizes brain position) Cribriform plate Contains olfactory foramina – passages for olfactory nerves Sella turcica or Turkish saddle Saddle-shaped enclosure on superior surface of sphenoid body Internal acoustic meatus Carries blood vessels and nerves to inner ear © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Horizontal section of the skull
Crista galli Nasal bones Cribriform plate Frontal bone Sella turcica Ethmoid Sphenoid Temporal bone Foramen ovale Carotid canal Module 5.10 Additional landmarks are visible in sectional views of the skull Internal acoustic meatus Parietal bone Jugular foramen Occipital bone Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Paranasal Sinuses (5.10) Air-filled chambers connected to nasal cavities Lighten skull bones Provide extensive area of mucous epithelium Frontal sinuses – variable in size and time of appearance Ethmoidal air cells – network of small chambers; mucus from here flushes surfaces of nasal cavities Sphenoid sinus Maxillary sinuses – largest sinuses; mucus from here flushes inferior surface of nasal cavities © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Frontal sinus Ethmoidal air cells Sphenoid sinus Maxilla
Paranasal sinuses Frontal sinus Ethmoidal air cells Sphenoid sinus Maxilla Maxillary sinus Module 5.10 Additional landmarks are visible in sectional views of the skull Openings to nasal cavities Mandible Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Nasal Complex Structures (5.10)
Sphenoidal sinuses On sides of sphenoid body; variable in size; inferior to sella turcica Ethmoid Central plate contributes to nasal septum Superior nasal conchae – project into nasal cavity Middle nasal conchae – project into nasal cavity Inferior nasal conchae Separate bones – also project into nasal cavity on either side of nasal septum © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sagittal section with nasal septum removed
Frontal bone Frontal sinuses Sphenoidal sinuses Crista galli Sella turcica Lacrimal bone Nasal bone Sphenoid Ethmoid Superior nasal concha Inferior nasal concha Middle nasal concha Module 5.10 Additional landmarks are visible in sectional views of the skull Maxilla Hard palate Palatine bone Figure 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.10 Review List at least five features of the ethmoid bone.
Which bones contain paranasal sinuses? What roles do the paranasal sinuses play in the skull? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Associated Bones of the Skull (5.11)
Hyoid bone Greater horns – help support larynx; attached to muscles that move tongue Lesser horns – attached to ligaments that suspend hyoid and larynx Body of hyoid – attachment site for muscles of larynx, tongue, pharynx Auditory ossicles Enclosed in temporal bone Play a role in conducting vibrations to inner ear © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Associated bones of the skull
7 FACE 14 CRANIUM 8 Maxillary bones 2 Occipital bone 1 Palatine bones 2 Parietal bones 2 Auditory ossicles enclosed in temporal bones (see Chapter 9) Nasal bones 2 Frontal bone 1 Hyoid bone 1 6 Inferior nasal conchae 2 Temporal bones 2 Zygomatic bones 2 Sphenoid 1 Lacrimal bones 2 Ethmoid 1 Vomer 1 Mandible 1 Greater horns Module 5.11 The associated bones of the skull perform specialized functions Body of hyoid Lesser horns Figure 1 – 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.11 Review How many associated bones of the skull are there?
Describe the location and function of the auditory ossicles. Is your lab partner correct when she claims that the hyoid bone does not directly join (articulate with) any other bone? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Fontanelles (5.12) Flexible fibrous connective tissue connects cranial bones at birth; allows skull shape distortion during birth Anterior fontanelle – "soft spot"; persists until nearly 2 years old Occipital fontanelle – junction between lambdoid and sagittal suture; disappears within month or two after birth Sphenoidal fontanelle – on each side; between squamous and coronal sutures Mastoid fontanelle – on each side; between squamous and lambdoid suture © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Coronal suture Sphenoid fontanelle Squamous suture Mastoid fontanelle
Fontalles of the skull Coronal suture Sphenoid fontanelle Frontal bone Parietal bone Squamous suture Mastoid fontanelle Nasal bone Temporal bone Maxilla Sphenoid Mandible Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Parietal bone Lambdoid suture Frontal bone Module 5.12 Fontanelles permit cranial growth in infants and small children Frontal suture Occipital fontanelle Anterior fontanelle Sagittal suture Frontal bone Occipital bone Parietal bone Coronal suture Figure 1 – 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.12 Review Define fontanelle. Identify the major fontanelles.
What purposes do fontanelles serve? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Vertebral Column (5.13) 26 bones (24 vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx)
Averages 71 cm (28 in.) Provides column of support – transfers body's weight to lower limbs Protects spinal cord Maintains upright position © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Spinal Curves (5.13) Primary curves (develop before birth) and secondary curves (develop after birth) Cervical curve – secondary; develops as infant learns to balance weight of head on neck Thoracic curve – primary; accommodates thoracic organs Lumbar curve – secondary; develops with ability to stand; balances weight of trunk over lower limbs Sacral curve – primary; accommodates abdominopelvic organs © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Vertebral Regions (5.13) Cervical (7 vertebrae – C1 to C7)
Thoracic (12 vertebrae – T1 to T12) Lumbar (5 vertebrae – L1 to L5) Sacral Coccygeal © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Vertebral regions and spinal curves
Cervical curve C2 C3 Cervical (7 vertebrae) C4 C5 C6 C7 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Thoracic curve T6 T7 Thoracic (12 vertebrae) T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 Module 5.13 The vertebral column has four spinal curves,and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences L1 Lumbar curve L2 Lumbar (5 vertebrae) L3 L4 L5 Sacral curve Sacral Coccygeal Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Parts of a Vertebra (5.13) Three basic parts Articular processes
Extend superiorly and inferiorly to articulate with adjacent vertebrae Vertebral arch Forms posterior and lateral margins of vertebral foramen Vertebral body Transfers weight along axis of vertebral column © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Basic parts of a vertebra
Articular processes Vertebral arch Module 5.13 The vertebral column has four spinal curves,and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences Vertebral body Superior view Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Four Parts of a Vertebral Arch (5.13)
Spinous process Projects posteriorly from point where laminae fuse Laminae Form "roof" of vertebral foramen Vertebral foramen – framed by the vertebral body and vertebral arch Transverse processes Project laterally on both sides; sites of muscle attachment Pedicles Form sides of vertebral arch © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sections of the vertebral arch
Spinous process Vertebral foramen Laminae Transverse processes Module 5.13 The vertebral column has four spinal curves,and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences Pedicles Inferior view Figure 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Vertebral Canal (5.13) Encloses spinal cord
Formed by vertebral foramina of successive vertebrae Bodies of adjacent vertebrae interconnected by ligaments Adjacent vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs – pads of fibrocartilage Spaces between successive pedicles – intervertebral foramina Passageway for nerves and blood vessels © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lateral view of vertebrae showing vertebral canal
Pedicle Intervertebral discs Intervertebral foramina Module 5.13 The vertebral column has four spinal curves,and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences Vertebral body Vertebral canal Figure 4 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Articular Processes and Facets (5.13)
Superior articular processes Articulate with inferior articular process of more superior vertebra Inferior articular processes Articulate with superior articular processes of more inferior vertebra (or sacrum) Articular facet Smooth, concave surface on each articular process © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Articular processes of vertebrae
Articular facet Superior articular processes Inferior articular processes Module 5.13 The vertebral column has four spinal curves,and vertebrae have both anatomical similarities and regional differences Figure 5 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.13 Review Name the major components of a typical vertebra.
What is the importance of the secondary curves of the spine? To which part of the vertebra do the intervertebral discs attach? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cervical Vertebra Structure (5.14)
Smallest vertebrae in vertebral column All 7 have transverse foramen – allows passage of vertebral arteries and vertebral veins Short, stumpy transverse process C2–C6 have bifid spinous process C7 has large spinous process ending in tubercle Can be felt through skin Elastic ligament connects from here to occipital bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Superior view of cervical vertebra
Bifid spinous process Transverse foramen Vertebral foramen Short and stumpy transverse process Vertebral body Module 5.14 There are seven cervical vertebrae and twelve thoracic vertebrae Cervical vertebra (superior view) Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Spinous process of C7 Spinous process on C7
Module 5.14 There are seven cervical vertebrae and twelve thoracic vertebrae Figure 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

First Two Cervical Vertebrae (5.14)
Specialized to support and stabilize cranium Atlas, C1 No vertebral body or spinous process Large, round vertebral foramen Articulates with occipital condyles – permits nodding "yes" Axis, C2 Prominent dens, superior projection on body Dens bound to atlas by transverse ligament – permits rotation as in shaking head "no" © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The first two cervical vertebrae are the atlas and axis
Anterior arch of atlas C1 is called the atlas Dens Transverse ligament binding dens to anterior arch of atlas Articulation point between occipital condyles and atlas Module 5.14 There are seven cervical vertebrae and twelve thoracic vertebrae Axis Posterior arch of atlas Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thoracic Vertebra (5.14) Twelve thoracic vertebrae
Each one slightly larger as they move inferiorly Heart-shaped body Long, slender spinous process projects posteriorly and inferiorly Costal facets on vertebral body for rib articulation T1–T10 also have costal facets on transverse processes © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Characteristics of thoracic vertebrae
Transverse process Superior articular facet Vertebral foramen Long, slender spinous process Superior costal facet Costal facet on vertebral body Costal facet on transverse process Vertebral body Module 5.14 There are seven cervical vertebrae and twelve thoracic vertebrae Thoracic vertebra (superior view) Vertebral body Inferior costal facet Transverse process Thoracic vertebra (lateral view) Figure 4 – 6 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.14 Review Joe suffered a hairline fracture at the base of the dens. Which bone is fractured and where is the fractured bone located? Examining a human vertebra, you notice that, in addition to the large foramen for the spinal cord, two smaller foramina are on either side of the bone in the region of the transverse processes. From which region of the vertebral column is this vertebra? When you run your finger down the middle of a person's spine, what part of each vertebra are you feeling just beneath the skin? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Five Lumbar Vertebrae (5.15)
Largest vertebrae (transmit most weight) Thicker body than thoracic vertebra Superior and inferior surfaces oval No costal facets Slender transverse processes Triangular vertebral foramen Stumpy spinous process Superior articular processes face medially Inferior articular processes face laterally © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Characteristics of lumbar vertebrae
Superior articular process Sacrum Pedicle Transverse process Vertebral body Coccyx Spinous process Inferior articular process Superior articular process Spinous process Module 5.15 There are five lumbar vertebrae, and the sacrum and coccyx consist of fused vertebrae Lateral view Lamina Transverse process Vertebral foramen Pedicle Vertebral body Superior view Figure 1 – 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Sacrum (5.15) Five fused vertebrae (begin fusing after puberty; completed by age 25–30) Protects reproductive, digestive, urinary organs Attaches axial skeleton to appendicular skeleton Anterior surface concave; posterior surface convex Base – broad superior surface Ala or wing – extends to each side from base Apex – narrow, inferior portion Transverse lines – former boundaries of individual vertebrae © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sacral Surface Features (5.15)
Sacral promontory – landmark for labor and delivery Sacral foramina – intervertebral foramina open into these Sacral canal – passageway for nerves and membranes Sacral tuberosity – attachment site of sacro-iliac joint ligaments Auricular surface – site of articulation with hip bones (sacro-iliac joint) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sacral Surface Features (5.15)
Lateral sacral crest – represents fused transverse processes of sacral vertebrae Median sacral crest – formed by fused spinous processes of sacral vertebrae Sacral hiatus – opening at inferior end of sacral canal Superior articular process – articulates with last lumbar vertebra Coccyx – 3 to 5 fused coccygeal vertebrae (begins fusing by around age 26) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Base Sacral ala Sacral promontory Transverse lines Sacral foramina
Sacrum and coccyx Base Sacral ala Sacral promontory Transverse lines Sacral foramina Apex Coccyx Sacral tuberosity Sacral canal Superior articular process Auricular surface Module 5.15 There are five lumbar vertebrae, and the sacrum and coccyx consist of fused vertebrae Median sacral crest Lateral sacral crest Sacral hiatus Coccyx Figure 3 – 4 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.15 Review How many vertebrae are present in the lumbar region? In the sacrum? What structure forms the posterior wall of the pelvic girdle? Why are the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae so large? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thoracic Cage (5.16) Provides bony support to walls of thoracic cavity
Protects heart, lungs, and thymus Composed of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum Attachment point for muscles involved in: Breathing Maintaining position of vertebral column Movements of pectoral girdle and upper limbs © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ribs and Sternum (5.16) Ribs
True ribs (1–7) – connected to sternum by individual costal cartilages False ribs (8–10) – connected to sternum by shared costal cartilages Floating or vertebral ribs (11–12) – no connection to sternum Sternum Manubrium – trapezoid-shaped; articulates with clavicle and first pair of ribs Body – articulates with rib pairs 2–7 Xiphoid process – attached to inferior portion of body © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Thoracic cage location
Jugular notch Ribs Sternum T1 1 2 3 True ribs Manubrium 4 Module 5.16 The thoracic cage protects organs in the chest and provides sites for muscle attachment 5 6 Body 7 T11 8 11 T12 False ribs 9 12 Xiphoid process 10 Floating or vertebral ribs Costal cartilage Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.16 Review How are true ribs distinguished from false ribs?
What are the three parts of the sternum? In addition to the ribs and sternum, what other bones make up the thoracic cage? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Kyphosis (5.17) Exaggerated thoracic curvature gives "round-back" appearance Caused by: Osteoporosis with compression fractures on anterior part of vertebral bodies Chronic contraction in muscles inserting on vertebrae Abnormal vertebral growth © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Scoliosis (5.17) Abnormal lateral curvature of spine
Most common distortion of vertebral column Caused by: Developmental problems Damage to vertebral bodies Muscular paralysis affecting one side of back Idiopathic (unknown cause) Treatment Bracing or surgery for severe cases © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lordosis (5.17) Anterior exaggeration of lumbar curvature – "swayback"
Causes of lordosis: Pregnancy Abdominal obesity Weakness in abdominal wall muscles © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.17 Review List three causes of kyphosis.
How might pregnancy contribute to the development of lordosis? Which condition is primarily associated with lateral distortion of the spine? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Pectoral Girdle (5.18) Connects upper limbs to trunk Consists of:
Two S-shaped clavicles Articulate with manubrium (sternal end) and: Acromion of scapula (acromial end) Flat, broader end Two broad, flat scapulae © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior view of the pectoral girdle
Clavicle Jugular notch Scapula Humerus Module 5.18 The pectoral girdles—the clavicles and scapulae —connect the upper limbs to the axial skeleton Anterior view Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Superior and inferior views of right clavicle
Superior view of right clavicle LATERAL MEDIAL Acromial end Sternal end Module 5.18 The pectoral girdles—the clavicles and scapulae —connect the upper limbs to the axial skeleton LATERAL Inferior view of right clavicle MEDIAL Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Scapula (5.18) Anterior surface of body – triangle formed by:
Superior border Medial (vertebral) border Lateral (axillary) border Corners of triangle are superior angle, inferior angle, lateral angle (location of glenoid cavity) Subscapular fossa – depression in anterior surface © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Scapula (5.18) Posterior surface – convex with prominent ridges and depressions Scapular spine Supraspinous fossa – depression superior to scapular spine Infraspinous fossa – depression inferior to scapular spine © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior and posterior views of right scapula
Scapular spine Acromion Coracoid process Acromion Superior border Superior angle Subscapular fossa Glenoid cavity Supraspinous fossa Module 5.18 The pectoral girdles—the clavicles and scapulae —connect the upper limbs to the axial skeleton Medial border Infraspinous fossa Lateral border Anterior view of right scapula Posterior view of right scapula Inferior angle Figure 3 – 4 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Scapula Structures – Lateral View (5.18)
Glenoid cavity Articulates with humerus Acromion Large process that extends laterally Projects posterior and superior to glenoid cavity Continuous with scapular spine Coracoid process Projects anterior and superior to glenoid cavity © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lateral view of right scapula
Coracoid process Glenoid cavity Lateral view of right scapula Acromion Module 5.18 The pectoral girdles—the clavicles and scapulae —connect the upper limbs to the axial skeleton Figure 5 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.18 Review Name the bones of the pectoral girdle.
How would a broken clavicle affect the mobility and stability of the scapula? Which bone articulates with the scapula at the glenoid cavity? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Humerus (5.19) Articulates with scapula at proximal end and ulna and radius at distal end Surface features include: Head – articulates with glenoid cavity of scapula Greater tubercle (lateral, larger) and lesser (medial) tubercle Intertubercular groove – between tubercles; groove for tendon Anatomical neck and surgical neck (typical fracture site) Deltoid tuberosity – rough elevation where deltoid muscle attaches Radial groove – path of radial nerve © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Humerus Distal End (5.19) Medial and lateral epicondyles Capitulum
Projections above condyles Capitulum Forms lateral surface of condyle Articulation point for radius Trochlea Spool-shaped medial portion of condyle Extends from olecranon fossa (posterior) to coronoid fossa (anterior) Articulation point for ulna © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior and posterior views of right humerus
Head Greater tubercle Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle Intertubercular groove Anatomical neck Surgical neck Radial groove Shaft Module 5.19 The humerus of the arm articulates with the radius and ulna of the forearm Deltoid tuberosity Coronoid fossa Olecranon fossa Lateral epicondyle Medial epicondyle Capitulum Trochlea Trochlea Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Forearm Bones – Ulna (5.19) In anatomical position, ulna is medial to radius Olecranon – point of elbow; projects into olecranon fossa Coronoid process – projects into coronoid fossa of humerus Trochlear notch – articulates with trochlea of humerus Radial notch – articulates with head of radius at proximal radio-ulnar joint Ulnar head –articulates with radius to form distal radio-ulnar joint Styloid process – attached to head © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Forearm Bones – Radius (5.19)
Radius surface features Radial head – articulates with capitulum of humerus Neck – extends from radial head to radial tuberosity Radial tuberosity – attachment site for biceps brachii muscle Styloid process – distal end; articulates with wrist bones Interosseous membrane Fibrous sheet connecting shafts of ulna and radius © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Posterior and anterior views of right ulna and radius
Radial head Trochlear notch Olecranon Neck of radius Coronoid process Proximal radio-ulnar joint Radial tuberosity Radial notch at proximal radio-ulnar joint Ulna Radius Radius Ulna Interosseous membrane Module 5.19 The humerus of the arm articulates with the radius and ulna of the forearm Ulnar notch Distal radio-ulnar joint Ulnar head Styloid process of the radius Ulnar head Styloid process of the ulna Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.19 Review Identify the bones of the arm and forearm.
Identify the two rounded projections on either side of the elbow, and state to which bone they belong. Which bone of the forearm is positioned laterally while in the anatomical position? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges (5.20)
Carpus (wrist) has eight carpal bones arranged in two rows Proximal (scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform) Distal (trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate) Five metacarpal bones Articulate with distal carpal bones Identified by Roman numerals I–V starting on lateral side Phalanges Articulate with metacarpals 14 on each hand (3 for each finger; 2 for the thumb or pollex) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bones of the wrist and hand
Radius Proximal Carpal Bones Ulna Scaphoid Distal Carpal Bones Lunate Triquetrum Trapezium Pisiform Trapezoid Capitate Hamate I V IV III II Metacarpal bones Proximal phalanx Module 5.20 The wrist is composed of carpal bones, and the hand consists of metacarpal bones and phalanges Middle phalanx Right wrist and hand, posterior (dorsal) view Distal phalanx Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.20 Review Define phalanges. Name the carpal bones.
Bill accidentally fractures his first distal phalanx with a hammer. Which finger is broken? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Pelvic Girdle (5.21) Composed of two hip bones (coxal bones)
Hip bone formed by fusion of: Ilium Ischium Pubis Pubic symphysis – fibrocartilage pad connecting right and left pubic bones © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ilium Pubis Pubic symphysis Ischium The pelvic girdle
Module 5.21 The hip bone forms by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis Ischium Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Hip Bone Landmarks (5.21) Iliac spines – attachment sites for muscles and ligaments Gluteal lines – attachment points for large hip muscles Greater sciatic notch – passageway for sciatic nerve Iliac crest – ridge for muscle attachment Ischial spine – inferior to greater sciatic notch Ischial tuberosity – bears body's weight when seated Acetabulum – articulation point for femur Obturator foramen – closed by sheet of collagen fibers; bounded by ischial ramus, inferior pubic ramus, superior pubic ramus © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lateral view of the hip bone
Iliac crest Anterior superior iliac spine Gluteal lines Ilium ANTERIOR Posterior superior iliac spine Posterior inferior iliac spine Greater sciatic notch Module 5.21 The hip bone forms by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis Acetabulum Ischial spine Ischium Pubis Ischial ramus Ischial tuberosity Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.21 Review Describe the acetabulum.
Which three bones fuse to make up the hip bone? When you are seated, which part of the hip bone bears your body's weight? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Pelvis (5.22) Consists of two hip bones, sacrum, and coccyx
Held together by extensive network of ligaments Sacro-iliac joint Articulation between sacrum and ilium Union between axial and appendicular skeleton © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Hip Bone Sacrum Ilium Coccyx Pubis Ischium Pelvic bones
Module 5.22 The pelvis consists of the two hip bones plus the sacrum and the coccyx Ischium Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Iliac crest L5 Iliac fossa Ilium Sacrum Sacro-iliac joint Acetabulum
Pelvic bone markings Iliac crest L5 Iliac fossa Ilium Sacrum Sacro-iliac joint Acetabulum Pubic tubercle Module 5.22 The pelvis consists of the two hip bones plus the sacrum and the coccyx Obturator foramen Ischium Anterior view Pubic symphysis Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

False Pelvis and True Pelvis (5.22)
Can divide pelvis into: False (greater) pelvis Encloses organs in inferior portion of abdominal cavity True (lesser) pelvis Encloses pelvic cavity Pelvic brim – bony margin of true pelvis Pelvic inlet – opening enclosed by pelvic brim Pelvic outlet – opening bounded by coccyx, ischial tuberosities, ischial spines, and inferior border pubic symphysis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Superior and inferior views of the pelvis
Superior view Inferior view Pelvic outlet False pelvis Ischial spine Module 5.22 The pelvis consists of the two hip bones plus the sacrum and the coccyx Pelvic inlet Pelvic brim Pelvic outlet Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Male and Female Pelvis Structure (5.22)
Female pelvis versus male pelvis Smoother, lighter, and with less prominent markings Adapted for childbearing Enlarged pelvic outlet Broader pubic angle, greater than 100° Less curvature on sacrum and coccyx Wider, more circular pelvic inlet Broad, low pelvis Ilia project farther laterally but not as superiorly © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Male vs. female pelvic shape
Ischial spine Female 90˚ or less Module 5.22 The pelvis consists of the two hip bones plus the sacrum and the coccyx Ischial spine 100˚ or more Figure 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.22 Review Name the bones of the pelvis.
The pubic bones are joined anteriorly by what structure? How is the pelvis of females adapted for childbearing? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Femur (5.23) Longest and heaviest bone in body
Articulates with hip bone and tibia Major landmarks Femoral head – articulates with pelvis at acetabulum Neck – joins head to shaft at about 125°angle Greater trochanter (larger, lateral) and lesser trochanter (smaller, medial) Intertrochanteric line – marks edge of articular capsule Gluteal tuberosity – attachment site for gluteus maximus muscle Linea aspera – attachment site of hip muscles © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Distal End of the Femur (5.23)
Medial and lateral condyles Articulate with tibia to form knee joint Patellar surface Anterior surface of femur; smooth surface for patella to glide over Intercondylar fossa Posterior surface of femur between condyles © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior and posterior views of the left femur
Pit in femoral head for ligament attachment to acetabulum Neck Greater trochanter Greater trochanter Femoral head Intertrochanteric crest Gluteal tuberosity Intertrochanter line Linea aspera Lesser trochanter Shaft Module 5.23 The femur articulates with the patella and tibia Lateral supracondylar ridge Patellar surface Medial epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Intercondylar fossa Lateral epicondyle Lateral condyle Medial condyle Lateral condyle Anterior view Posterior view Figure 1 – 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Tibia and Fibula (5.23) Tibia (shinbone) Fibula
Larger, medial bone of leg Proximal end – medial and lateral tibial condyles articulate with medial and lateral condyles of femur Intercondylar eminence – ridge separating condyles Fibula Small, slender bone Does not participate in knee joint; does not bear weight Attachment site for muscles moving foot and toes © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Tibia and Fibula Landmarks (5.23)
Tibia (shinbone) Tibial tuberosity – attachment point for patellar ligament Anterior crest – ridge along anterior tibial surface Medial malleolus – provides medial stability to ankle joint Fibula Head – articulates with tibia Lateral malleolus – provides lateral stability to ankle joint Interosseous membrane Helps stabilize bone positions; additional surface area for muscle attachment © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior and posterior views of the right tibia and fibula
Superior tibiofibular joint Articular surface of medial tibial condyle Intercondylar eminence Lateral tibial condyle Articular surface of lateral tibial condyle Medial tibial condyle Head of fibula Tibial tuberosity Lateral tibial condyle Head of fibula Interosseous membrane Anterior crest Module 5.23 The femur articulates with the patella and tibia Fibula Tibia Fibula Inferior articular surface Inferior tibiofibular joint Medial malleolus Lateral malleolus Lateral malleolus (fibula) Anterior view Posterior view Figure 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.23 Review Identify the bones of the lower limb.
Which structure articulates with the acetabulum? The fibula neither participates in the knee joint nor bears weight. Yet, when it is fractured, walking becomes difficult. Why? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ankle and Foot (5.24) Ankle has seven tarsal bones
Calcaneus (heel bone; connects to calcaneal or Achilles tendon), talus (articulates with tibia), navicular, cuboid Three cuneiform bones (medial, intermediate, lateral) Five metatarsal bones Articulate with distal surface of cuboid and cuneiform bones Identified by Roman numerals I–V starting on medial side Phalanges Articulate with metatarsals 14 on each foot (2 for the great toe or hallux; 3 for each other toe) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bones of the ankle and foot
Calcaneus Talus Trochlea of talus Navicular Cuboid Cuneiform bones Metatarsals Metatarsal bones articulate with the cuboid and cuneiform bones. V IV I III II Module 5.24 The ankle and foot contain tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges Metatarsal bones I - V Proximal phalanx Distal phalanx Phalanges Hallux Superior view Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Arches of the Foot (5.24) Longitudinal arch Transverse arch
Formed due to ligaments and tendons connecting calcaneus to distal part of metatarsal bones Allows for weight transfer depending on position of foot Differences in elasticity result in elevation of medial plantar surface Transverse arch Due to degree of longitudinal curvature changing from medial to lateral border © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lateral and medial views of the foot
surface of trochlea of talus Cuboid bone Navicular bone Cuneiform bones Metatarsal bones (I–V) Phalanges Lateral view I II Calcaneal tendon attachment III IV V Phalanges Metatarsal bones Medial cuneiform bone Navicular bone Talus Module 5.24 The ankle and foot contain tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges Medial view I Calcaneus Longitudinal arch Transverse arch Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Congenital Talipes Equinovarus (5.24)
Improper arch development in foot Common name "clubfoot" Abnormal muscle development distorts growing bones May involve one or both feet Ranges from mild to moderate to severe Longitudinal arch exaggerated Feet turned medially and inverted Affects 1 in 1000 births; more common in males Treated with casts and supports; possible surgery © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.24 Review Identify the tarsal bones.
Which foot bone transmits the weight of the body from the tibia toward the toes? While jumping off the back steps at his house, 10-year old Joey lands on his right heel and breaks his foot. Which foot bone is most likely broken? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Joint Structure and Movement (Section 3)
Movements in skeleton occur at articulations or joints where two bones interconnect Amount of movement or range of motion (ROM) determined by anatomical structure Functionally categorized as: Synarthrosis – no movement Amphiarthrosis – little movement Diarthrosis – free movement © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Synarthrosis (Section 3)
Functionally no movement Bones close together or interlocked Suture – fibrous connection with interlocking surfaces Gomphosis – fibrous connection and insertion into bony socket Synchondrosis – cartilaginous connection (cartilage between two bones) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Amphiarthrosis and Diarthrosis (Section 3)
Permits more movement than synarthrosis Stronger than freely movable joint Bones connected by collagen fibers or cartilage Fibrous – syndesmosis – bones connected by ligament Cartilaginous – symphysis – bones connected by fibrocartilage pad Diarthrosis – free movement Synovial – complex joints with joint capsules and synovial fluid © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Synovial Joints (5.25) Allow free movement
Components of synovial joints Articular cartilages – line ends of each bone; no perichondrium; matrix has more water than other cartilages Joint capsule or articular capsule – dense and fibrous; may be reinforced with tendons and ligaments Synovial fluid – lubricates, cushions, prevents abrasion, and supports chondrocytes Produced by synovial membrane lining joint cavity © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Components of synovial joints
Marrow cavity Components of Synovial Joints Periosteum Articular cartilage Synovial membrane Joint capsule Spongy bone of epiphysis Synovial fluid Module 5.25 Synovial joints are freely movable diarthroses containing synovial fluid Compact bone Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Functions of Synovial Fluid (5.25)
Lubrication During compression of joint, synovial fluid squeezed into space between opposing surfaces Thin layer of fluid reduces friction between moving surfaces Nutrient distribution Articular cartilage compresses and re-expands with movement Pumps synovial fluid into and out of cartilage matrix Circulating synovial fluid provides nutrients and waste disposal Shock absorption As joint is compressed, synovial fluid distributes forces evenly across articular surfaces and outward to joint capsule Module 5.25 Synovial joints are freely movable diarthroses containing synovial fluid © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Knee Joint and Dislocation (5.25)
Accessory structures supporting the knee Bursa – small, fluid-filled pocket containing synovial fluid; lined by synovial membrane; reduces friction and acts as shock absorber Fat pads – localized masses of adipose tissue; lined by synovial membrane; protect articular cartilages; fill in spaces Meniscus – pad of fibrocartilage; allows for variations in articular surface shapes Accessory ligaments – support, strengthen, and reinforce Dislocation – articular surfaces forced out of position © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Accessory structures supporting the knee
Tendon of quadriceps muscles Accessory Structures Supporting the Knee Bursa Patella Fat pads Synovial membrane Femur Joint capsule Meniscus Joint cavity Articular cartilage Module 5.25 Synovial joints are freely movable diarthroses containing synovial fluid Tibia Accessory ligaments Patellar ligament Figure 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.25 Review Define dislocation.
Describe the components of a synovial joint, and identify the function of each. Why would improper circulation of synovial fluid lead to the degeneration of articular cartilages in the affected joint? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Types of Synovial Joints (5.26)
Gliding – permits sliding motion in any direction on relatively flat surface Hinge – permits movement in only one plane Pivot – permits rotation around axis Condylar – permits movement in two planes; prevents rotation Saddle – permits more extensive motion in two planes; prevents rotation Ball-and-socket – permits movements in multiple directions plus rotation © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints
Types of Synovial Joints Models of Joint Motion Examples Gliding joint Clavicle • Acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints • Intercarpal and intertarsal joints • Vertebrocostal joints • Sacro-iliac joints Manubrium Hinge joint • Elbow joints • Knee joints • Ankle joints • Interphalangeal joints Humerus Ulna Pivot joint Atlas • Atlas/axis • Proximal radio-ulnar joints Axis Condylar joint • Radiocarpal joints • Metacarpophalangeal joints 2–5 • Metatarsophalangeal joints Scaphoid bone Ulna Radius Saddle joint Module 5.26 Anatomical organization determines the functional properties of synovial joints • First carpometacarpal joints III II Metacarpal bone of thumb Trapezium Ball-and-socket joint • Shoulder joints • Hip joints Scapula Humerus Figure © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.26 Review Identify the types of synovial joints.
What type of synovial joint permits the widest range of motion? Indicate the type of synovial joint for each of the following: shoulder, elbow, and thumb. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Intervertebral Discs (5.27)
Pads of fibrocartilage separating adjacent vertebrae Composed of fibrous pad with gelatinous core Bulging disc Stresses distort intervertebral disc and force it partway into vertebral canal Herniated disc Intervertebral disc projecting posteriorly into vertebral canal impacting spinal nerves © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lateral view of bulging disc
Normal intervertebral disc L1 Bulging disc Module 5.27 Adjacent vertebrae are separated by intervertebral discs that are compressed by the weight of the trunk L2 Figure 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Superior view of herniated disc
Compressed area of spinal nerve Spinal nerve Module 5.27 Adjacent vertebrae are separated by intervertebral discs that are compressed by the weight of the trunk Spinal cord Gelatinous core of herniated disc Intervertebral disc Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Osteoporosis (5.27) Normal aging – bones become thinner and weaker
Begins between ages of 30–40 Osteoblast activity declines; osteoclast activity stays same level Women lose 8 percent skeletal mass each decade after age 40 Men lose 3 percent skeletal mass each decade after age 40 Osteoporosis Condition when loss of bone mass compromises function Contributes to vertebral fractures in elderly © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Normal spongy bone and spongy bone with osteoporosis
Module 5.27 Adjacent vertebrae are separated by intervertebral discs that are compressed by the weight of the trunk Normal spongy bone SEM x 25 Spongy bone with osteoporosis SEM x 21 Figure 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Clinical scan of compression fracture in lumbar vertebra
Module 5.27 Adjacent vertebrae are separated by intervertebral discs that are compressed by the weight of the trunk Clinical scan of a compression fracture in a lumbar vertebra Figure 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.27 Review What is the function of an intervertebral disc?
Compare a bulging disc and a herniated disc. What is osteoporosis? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Arthritis (5.28) Rheumatism
General term indicating pain and stiffness in bones and/or muscles Arthritis All rheumatic diseases that affect synovial joints Involves damage to articular cartilages Osteoarthritis Affects age 60 or older From cumulative effects of wear and tear on joints or possible genetic factors Affects 25 percent of women and 15 percent of men over age 60 in the United States © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Normal and arthritic joints
Normal Joint Arthritic Joint Fibrous remains of the articular cartilage Articular cartilage Degenerating articular cartilage LM x 180 LM x 180 Module 5.28 Arthritis can disrupt normal joint structure and function Arthroscopic view of normal cartilage Arthroscopic view of damaged cartilage Figure 1 – 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Arthroscope (5.28) Optical fibers within a narrow tube
Used to explore joints without major surgery Arthroscopic surgery Inserting flexible instruments through second incision to perform surgery © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Arthroscopic view of knee joint cavity
Femoral condyle Module 5.28 Arthritis can disrupt normal joint structure and function Meniscus Ligaments within the joint cavity Figure 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Artificial Joints (5.28) Available for multiple synovial joints
Can restore mobility and relieve pain Service life of about 10 years Joint replacement is a stressful procedure © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Artificial hip Artificial shoulder Artificial knee Artificial joints
Module 5.28 Arthritis can disrupt normal joint structure and function Artificial hip Artificial shoulder Artificial knee Figure 4 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Module 5.28 Review Compare rheumatism to osteoarthritis.
Explain the use of an arthroscope. What can a person do to slow the progression of arthritis? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

5 The Skeletal System.

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5 The Skeletal System.

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