1. Definitions Mycologists--scientists who study fungi
Mycology--scientific discipline dealing with fungi
Mycoses--diseases caused in animals by fungi

2. What is a fungus?
A eukaryotic, heterotrophic organism devoid of chlorophyll that obtains its nutrients by absorption, and reproduces by spores.
The primary carbohydrate storage product of fungi is glycogen.
Most fungi have a thallus composed of hyphae (sing. hypha) that elongate by tip growth

3. The fungal thallus consists of hyphae; a mass of hyphae is a mycelium.

4. Structure of fungi

5. The Characteristics of Fungi
Fungi are NOT plants
Hyphae = tubular units of construction
Heterotrophic by absorption
Reproduce by spores
Ecologically pivotal roles

6. Hyphae Tubular Hard wall of chitin
Cross walls may form compartments (± cells)
Multinucleate
Grow at tips
Chitin is the same material used by Arthropods (Insects, crabs, etc.) in their exoskeletonsa
Nuclei of fungi are hard to see without stains

7. Heterotrophic by Absorption
Fungi get carbon from organic sources
Hyphal tips release enzymes
Enzymatic breakdown of substrate
Products diffuse back into hyphae
Product diffuses back
into hypha and is used
Enzymatic breakdown
Products
Nucleus hangs back
and “directs”
Most enzyme release (and absorption) at tips
Proteins and other materials synthesized by the entire mycelium are channeled by cytoplasmic streaming to the tips of the extending hyphae.
Enzymes

8. Modifications of hyphae

9. Only the tip wall is plastic and stretches
Hyphal growth
Hyphae grow from their tips
Mycelium = extensive, feeding web of hyphae
Mycelia are the ecologically active bodies of fungi
This wall is rigid
Only the tip wall is plastic and stretches

10. Hyphal growth from spore
Fungal mycelia can be huge, but they usually escape notice because they are subterranean.
One giant individual of Armillaria ostoyae in Oregon is 3.4 miles in diameter and covers 2,200 acres of forest,
It is at least 2,400 years old, and weighs hundreds of tons.
(Actually noone has seen this of this extent – but cultures have been taken from soil over that area and all isolates have been found to be the same individual)
Ten cubic centimeters of rich organic soil may have fungal hyphae with a surface area of over 300 cm2
germinating
spore
mycelium

11. Reproduce by spores Spores are reproductive cells Sexual Asexual
Pilobolus sporangia
Reproduce by spores
Spores are reproductive cells
Sexual
Asexual
Formed:
Directly on hyphae
Inside sporangia
Fruiting bodies
Penicillium hyphae
Fungi reproduce by releasing spores that are produced either sexually or asexually.
The output of spores from one reproductive structure is enormous, with the number reaching into the trillions.
Dispersed widely by wind or water, spores germinate to produce mycelia if they land in a moist place where there is food.
Amanita fruiting body

12. Kingdom
Fungi
Nutritional Type
Chemoheterotroph
Multicellularity
All, except yeasts
Cellular Arrangement
Unicellular, filamentous, fleshy
Food Acquisition Method
Absorptive
Characteristic Features
Sexual and asexual spores
Embryo Formation
None

13. Fungi are ancient
Major fungal lineages are ancient, perhaps emerging one billion years ago
Fungi were present before the emergence of animals and vascular plants

14. Old and Modern Classification
Carl Linnaeus ( ) the “Father of Taxonomy”
“ Minerals exist; plants exist and live; animals exist, live and sense.”
Plants without obvious sexual organs were classified in Class Cryptogamia (lichens, fungi, mosses, ferns)
Fungi are primitive (asli) plants under this classification of organisms.

15. Old Classification The Five kingdom system
Eukarya (includes all organism with a nucleus & membrane bound organelles)
Plants and Animals are fairly obvious (ketara)
Fungi, are very distinct (berlainan) from the other kingdoms
Kingdom Protista is a “dumping ground” for organisms that don’t fit into the other eukaryotic kingdoms
(Whittaker, 1969)

16. Modern Classification
At least 7 kingdoms are now recognized:
Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Animalia, Plantae, Eumycota, Stramenopila (Chromista), Protoctista (Protozoa, Protista)

17. Systems of classifying fungi
1) 1860 HOGG proposed the term PROTOCTISTA - fungi and neither Plant or Animal. This kingdom composed mostly of unicellular organisms. The kingdom was later replaced by 2 kingdoms – MYCOTA & MONERA (prokaryotes) and PROTOCTISTA(eukaryotes). 2) 1947 Microscopes enable study of complex structural characteristics. New classification (WOLF & WOLF, 1947) 3) 1969 Fungi in its own kingdom by WHITTAKER – FUNGI KINGDOM.

18. Systems of classifying fungi
4) 1998
Modification by MARGUILIS & SCHWARTZ – used characteristics
(structure & function).
MONERA: Prokaryotes – bacteria, actinomycetes, blue-green algae.
PROTOCTISTA: Eukaryotes – protozoa and other unicellular and colonial organisms such as water moulds, slime moulds and slime nets.
FUNGI : Eukaryotes – organisms that lack flagella that develop from spores such as yeast, molds, rusts and mushrooms.
PLANTAE: Eukaryotes – organisms that develop from embryos such as liverworts, mosses and vascular plants.
ANIMALIA: Eukaryotes – organisms that develop from a blastula (hollow ball of cells) such a sponges, worms, arthropods and mammals.

19. MARGUILIS & SCHWARTZ(1998)
Classify the fungi into 3 phyla : Zygomycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Chytrids (CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA) in the Kingdom Proctista. Deuteromycota with their closest relatives that are the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Lichen with the Phylum Ascomycota.

20. Other classifications
MOORE, 1998 (quoted from Pfieffer, M., et al., 2001) states that plants, animals and fungi can be separated based on how they obtain energy. Plants possess (memiliki) chloroplasts as photosynthetic structures used to produce food. Animals possess mitochondria used for internalized digestion. Fungi excrete enzymes into the food source they live within external digestion.

21. Classification using molecular research techniques
BALDAUF & PALMER (1993), WAINWRIGHT et al. (1993) and HASEGAWA et al (1993) The above current schemes agree that the three major kingdoms are separated and thereby confirmed that there are no connection between the fungi-plant kingdom.

22. KINGDOM
CHARACTERISTIC
EXAMPLE
Monera
Prokaryocyte
Bacteria
Actinomyces
Protista
Eukaryocyte
Protozoa
Fungi
Eukaryocyte *
Plants
Moss
Animals
Arthropods
Mammals
Man

23. Question 2 Fill in the blanks of the systematic of classification
1) Kingdom
2) Division / Phylum
3) ___________
4) Order
5) ___________
6) Tribe
7) ___________
8) Species
Sometimes there are subdivisions and subclasses

24. Hierarchical Classification
Kingdom Fungi
Phylum Basidiomycota
Class Basidiomycetes
Order Agaricales
Family Agaricaceae
Genus Agaricus
Species:
Agaricus campestris L.

25. Fungus versus Fungi
“Fungus” is used inclusively for a heterogenous group of organisms that have traditionally been studied by mycologists
“Fungi” refers to the organisms in the Kingdom Fungi, the true fungi, also called the “Eumycota”

26. How are fungi named?
To determine the correct name for a taxon, certain steps must be followed, including:
Effective publication
Valid publication
Description or diagnosis in Latin
Clear indication of rank
Designated type

27. Nomenclature
Nomenclature: the “allocation (pemberian bahagian) of scientific names to the units a systematist considers to merit formal recognition.” (Hawksworth et al., The Dictionary of the Fungi). 
The nomenclature of fungi is governed by the International Code for Botanical Nomenclature, as adopted by the International Botanical Congress.

28. How many species of fungi exist?
- 80,000 species of fungi described
- 1,700 new species described each year

29. How many species of fungi exist?
- 80,000 species of fungi described
- 1,700 new species described each year

30. Reasons why it is not easy to classify fungi
Fungi comprise (mengandungi) of a broad number of organisms.
Fungi have various forms depending on the environment and conditions in which they grow.
Many terms being used to describe the morphological structures of fungi.

31. Basic Characteristics and Life Cycles
Ascomycota (inc.Deuteromycetes)
Basidiomycota
Zygomycota
Mitosporic Fungi (Fungi Imperfecti)
Molecular studies indicate that animals, not plants, are the closest relatives of fungi.
Both Animals and Fungi are related most closely to a group of Protists known as the choanoflagellates (collar flagellates)
Kingdom began in ocean during Precambrian (Late Proterozoic era)
More than 100,000 species of fungi are known and mycologists estimate that there are actually about 1.5 million species worldwide.

32. Ascomycota – “sac fungi”
Teleomorphic fungi
Produce sexual and asexual spores
Sex. – asci
Asex. – common
Cup fungi, morels, truffles
Important plant parasites & saprobes
Yeast - Saccharomyces
Septate
Most lichens
Mycologists have described over 60,000 species of ascomycetes, or sac fungi.
Ascomycota tend to grow from spore to spore in one year and relate well to living plant tissues
There is diverse form in the growth and fruiting structures – yeasts to morels, many intermediate (and small)
Asexual reproduction by conidia (externally produced, not in sporangia)
Half of the Ascomycota form lichens (evolved 8 or more times in different orders) but not all lichens are Ascomycotes
A cluster of asci with spores inside

33. Basidiomycota – “club fungi”
Produce basidiospores and sometimes conidiospores
Sex – basidia
Asex – not so common
Long-lived dikaryotic mycelia
Rusts & smuts – primitive plant parasites
Septate
Mushrooms, polypores, puffballs
Enzymes decompose wood
Mycorrhizas
Asexual spores conidia
Ecologically important on wood as decomposers and parasites
Half the mushrooms form mycorrhizas
SEM of basidia and spores

34. Zygomycota – “zygote fungi”
Conjugation fungi
Coenocytic
Sex - zygosporangia
Asex - common
Produce sporangiospores and zygospores
Hyphae have no cross walls
Grow rapidly
Rhizopus, Mucor (opportunistic, systemic mycoses)
Mycorrhizas
Most of the 600 zygomycote, or zygote fungi, are terrestrial, living in soil or on decaying plant and animal material.
Asexual reproduction in sporangia
One zygomycote group form mycorrhizas, mutualistic associations with the roots of plants.
Fig 31.6 Rhizopus on strawberries

35. Fig 31.5 Chytridium growing on spores
True Fungi
Chytridiomycota – “chytrids”- Classified in CMR as true fungi (because of their molecular relationships)
Simple fungi
Produce motile spores
Mostly saprobes and parasites in aquatic habitats
Could just as well be Protists
Classified in CMR as true fungi (because of their molecular relationships)
Remainder of the phyla are almost exclusively terrestrial (a few molds on wet plant material)
Fig 31.5 Chytridium growing on spores

36. True Fungi versus Slime Moulds
those that are hyphal
possess cell walls throughout most of their life cycle
are exclusively absorptive in their nutrition.
Slime moulds:
- those that do not form hyphae
- lack cell walls during the phase that they obtain
nutrients and grow
are capable of ingesting nutrients by phagocytosis. So they are more common to Protista although they produce fruiting bodies like fungi.
The most studied of them are the cellular slime moulds and the plasmodial slime moulds or Myxomycetes.

37. QUESTION
The fungus can never be classified in Plantae or Animalia? EXPLAIN WHY? (Hint ! LOOK AT ITS MOBILITY & NUTRITION)