1. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Children Socioemotional Development in Infancy 7

2. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Images of Children The story of Darius’s fathering –Work-at-home father –Extensive father-child interactions –Introduction of child care center –Coordinated careers and child care

3. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Emotional Development Emotion: feeling or affect of importance –Complex and varies in intensity –Positive and negative; affects behaviors –Biological influences –Influenced by experiences and culture –Influenced by one’s perceptions Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

4. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Early Emotions Primary: present in humans, animals –Appear in first 6 months of life; surprise, anger, joy, sadness, fear Self-conscious emotions –Appear after age 18 months; embarrassment, jealousy, empathy, pride, share, guilt –Responses to reactions of others –Research controversy on jealousy in infants Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

5. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Emotional Expression and Social Relationships Two emotional expressions in infant communication –Crying Basic: rhythmic, incited by hunger Angry: excess air in vocal cords Pain: louder, high pitched, sudden, longer –Smiling Reflexive: natural, occurs 1 month after birth Social: response to external stimuli Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

6. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Fear Earliest emotion; appears about 6 months –Abused, neglected infants show it much earlier –Stranger anxiety: fear, wariness of strangers Intense from 9 to 12 months Not shown by all; intensity affected by social context and stranger behavior/traits –Separation protest: distress at being separated peaks between 13 and 18 months Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

7. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Separation Anxiety in Four Cultures Antiguan Guatemala Guatemalan Indian Israeli Kibbutzim African Bushman Percent of children who cried when mothers left 20 Age (in months) 15 0 52025303510 100 80 60 40

8. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Emotional Regulation and Coping During first year: –Gradual control of arousal to adapt, reach goal –Self-soothing in early infancy –Redirected attention, self-distraction later in infancy –Language defines emotions by age 2 Contexts affect emotional regulation –Caregiver responses matter, infant adapts Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

9. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Temperament Chess & Thomas: 3 basic types (clusters) –Easy child: positive mood, easily adapts –Difficult child: resists change, shows irregular behaviors, reacts negatively (cries) –Slow-to-warm child: low mood intensity, low activity level, somewhat negative –One-third of children don’t fit into these types –Temperament: moderately stable in childhood Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

10. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Temperament Kegan’s behavioral inhibition –Extroverted, bold child –Shy, subdued, timid child Inhibited to unfamiliar; shows anxiety, distress at about 7 to 9 months of age Inhibition intensity varies –Considerable consistency into early childhood Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

11. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Temperament Rothbart and Bates’ Classification –Extraversion/surgency: positive, impulsive –Negative affectivity: easily distressed Kegan’s inhibited child fits here –Effortful control: self-regulating, control varies Overall, don’t pigeon-hole children –Multiple dimensions of temperament exist –Context and experiences have impact Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

12. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Biological Foundations and Experience Biological influences: –Physiological characteristics associated with different temperaments Gender, culture, and temperament Goodness of Fit and Parenting –Goodness of fit: match between child’s temperament and environmental demands –Siblings differ in response to same parenting Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

13. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Parenting and Child’s Temperament Attention to and respect for individuality Structuring the child’s environment The “difficult child” and packaged parenting programs –Flexible caregiver responses –Avoid “labeling” and self-fulfilling prophecy Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

14. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Personality Development Personality: enduring characteristics of emotions and temperament Erikson’s trust-versus-mistrust: –Infants experience world as either positive or negative outcomes; continuity not guaranteed Sense of self: –real or imagined; motivating force in life –Self-recognition: about 18 months of age Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

15. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Personality Development The Developing Sense of Self –Separation and individualization process Independence –Erikson’s 2 nd stage: Autonomy versus shame and doubt –Self-determination and pride or overcontrol creates shame and doubt Development of Emotions and Personality in Infancy

16. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Percent of infants who recognized themselves in a mirror 0 Age (in months) 21-249-12 15-18 100 80 60 40 20 Amsterdam study Lewis and Brooks- Gunn study Development of Self-Recognition in Infancy

17. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Social Orientation/Understanding Infants motivated to understand the world –Social orientation: perceptions, interpretations Face-to-face play; still-face paradigm Different responses to humans and objects; stronger, positive responses to humans –Locomotion (crawl, walk, run) independence; lessens social interactions –Context and caregiver have effects Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment in Infancy

18. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Intention, Goal-directed behavior, and Cooperation Important to cognitive development –Joint attention and gaze: help understand others’ intentions Occurs between 7 to 11 months, intensifies Cooperation; connect self-intentions and those of others (link to social competence) –Social referencing: Ability to ‘read’ emotional cues of others Affects infants’ perceptions of others

19. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attachment and Its Development Attachment; close emotional bond –Freud: Attachment to source of oral satisfaction Disproved by Harlow’s research: physical comfort preferred for security –Erikson: First year is key for attachment, physical comfort plays role here Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment in Infancy

20. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 24 0 6 12 18 21-251-5 6-10 11-10 16-20 Age (days).................... Fed by wire mother Fed by cloth mother Hours per day spent with wire mother Hours per day spent with cloth mother Mean hours per day Harlow’s Results: Contact time with wire and cloth surrogate mothers

21. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Attachment and Its Development Bowlby: ethological view - attachment is innate predisposition –Attachment: 4 phases of social cognition Phase 1; birth to 2 mos. – draws to humans Phase 2: 2 to 7 mos. – focus on one person Phase 3: 7 to 24 mos. – actively seek regular contact with caregivers Phase 4: after 2 yrs. – aware of others’ goals, feelings, actions Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment in Infancy

22. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Individual Differences in Attachment Ainsworth’s Strange Situation –Measures attachment by observation –Infant experiences series of contexts –3 reactions to new situation Secure: positive, confident exploration Insecure-avoidant; little interaction with caregiver, no distress Insecure-resistant: clings to caregiver Insecure disorganized: disoriented, dazed Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment in Infancy

23. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 30 0 10 40 50 60 70 20 JapanU.S.Germany Percentage of infants Resistant Secure Avoidant Cross-Cultural Comparison of Attachment: Ainsworth’s strange situation applied to infants in three countries in 1988

24. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Differences in Attachment Criticisms –Measures may be culturally-biased –Lab experiments may not reflect real life –Early attachment is significant Secure linked to high self-esteem, social competence, self-confidence to adolescence Less continuity for other children –Infants: resilient and adaptive in life –Attachment theory ignores diversity Social Orientation/Understanding and Attachment in Infancy

25. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Family Complex, constellation of subsystems –Reciprocal influences on each other The Transition to Parenthood –New parents must adapt: time, finances, roles –Marital satisfaction decreases after birth –Parental cooperation has effect Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy

26. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Family Reciprocal Socialization is bidirectional –Scaffolding: positive parental behavior supports children’s efforts –Children’s skills increase –Support modified to suit children’s level of development –Mothers and fathers both competent caregivers, but behave differently –Fathers: more physical in play interactions Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy

27. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Child Care Child Care Policies Around the World –Five types of parental leave Maternity leave Paternity leave Parental leave Child-rearing leave Family leave Europe: leader of new ‘leave’ standards –Average of 16 weeks, 70% of wages paid Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy

28. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Child Care Variations in child care –Type varies greatly: Large centers/elaborate facilities, homes Commercial; nonprofit, churches, employers Professionals Mothers earning additional monies Quality matters –Low-income children: academic benefits –High quality linked to environment Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy

29. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Child Care Patterns of use –High reliance and early entry By 4 months, nearly 3/4 of infants have had some non-maternal child care –Socioeconomic factors affect amount and type Income level, education, marital status Dependence on mother’s income –Quality affected by group size, caregiver-child ratio, caregiver (behavior, education, skills) Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy

30. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Child Care Amount of child care –High-quality care and fewer hours in care lead to positive outcomes Family and parenting influences –Influence not weakened by extensive child care; parents have significant influence in children regulating emotions Social Contexts’ Affect On Socieoemotional Development in Infancy

31. © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The End 7