1. ADVERBS AND THE AdvP Lecture #3: 2012-03-07

2. REVIEW What have we done so far?

3. We introduced…

4. …the most evil POS of them all..

5. ADVERBS!!!

6. DIGRESSION- academic treatment of ADJs & ADVs Columbia University in the City of New York (Columbia University), whose famous alumni include: Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, Barack Obama, Warren Buffet, Orhan Pamuk and and more that 40 Nobel-prize laureates Course in Academic Writing where students are instructed that: “Adjectives are the enemy of nouns, and adverbs are the enemy of everything else.”

7. ADVERBS AS A PART OF SPEECH An open-class part of speech, typically dynamic in meaning, in the form of: SIMPLE ADVERBS: just, only, near, well, soon… COMPOUND ADVERBS: somehow, anywhere… DERIVATIONAL ADVERBS (derived through suffixation): quickly, sideways, clockwise, northwards… THE ADVERB PARADIGM has THREE FORMS: positive (fast), comparative (faster) and superlative (fastest).

8. THE ADVERB PHRASE THE ADVERB PHRASE IS A PHRASE THAT HAS AN ADVERB AS ITS HEAD. The AdvP can have the following forms: – AdvP = Adv e.g. carefully – AdvP = Adv Adv e.g. very carefully – AdvP = Adv Adv e.g. carefully enough – AdvP = Adv Adv Cl e.g. so fast [that I couldn’t see it] fast [enough] [to escape] o AdvP = (Adv) Adv PP e.g. (much) better [than Bill]

9. SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF ADVERB PHRASES (pg. 99) SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF ADVERB PHRASES INDEPENDENT DEPENDENT (PART OF OTHER PHRASES) ADVERBIAL: He speaks slowly. MODIFIER: extremely slow (AP) very slowly (AdvP) rather a mess (NP) straight through the wall (PP) over ten victims (determiner) COMPLEMENT OF PREPOSITION: over here till then from inside

10. INDEPENDENT ADVERB PHRASES = ADVERBIALS ADVERBIALS INTEGRATED into the CLAUSE STRUCTURE Primarily NON-LINKING: Provide speaker’s comment PERIPHERAL in the CLAUSE STRUCTURE Primarily LINKING: connect sentences DISJUNCTSCONJUNCTS ADJUNCTS Naturally, Ross is behaving. I sent Ross a personal invitation. He will therefore be there tomorrow. Ross is behaving naturally.

11. CLEFT SENTENCES: test for integration into the structure of the sentence Ross is behaving naturally. (ADJUNCT) It is naturally how Ross is behaving. Naturally, Ross is behaving. (DISJUNCT) *It is naturally that Ross is behaving. Consequently Ross is a good guy. (CONJUNCT) *It is consequently that Ross is a good guy.

12. In a hole in the ground there lived a hobbit.

13. Never in my entire life have I seen such a beauty!

14. LOCATIVE INVERSION LOCATIVE INVERSION is mainly limited to: – Adverbials of place – Verbs such as BE, COME, GO, SIT, LIE, STAND LOCATIVE INVERSION is used to put FOCUS on the subject, which is the most important part of the sentence. ADVERBIAL+VERB+SUBJECT Herecomesthe taxi! In the town squarestandsthe market hall. Upwent the prices.

15. NEGATIVE INVERSION To EMPHASIZE A NEGATIVE, we can place it AT THE FRONT OF THE CLAUSE. However, this triggers an obligatory change of word order, i.e. inversion: She at no time mentioned her earlier marriage. → At no time did she mention her earlier marriage. He hasn’t once offered to help. → Not once has he offered to help.

16. NEGATIVE INVERSION 2 special cases SCARCELY, HARDLY & BARELY vs. NO SOONER Scarcely / hardly + PAST PERFECT, WHEN + SIMPLE PAST Scarcely had I arrived at the station when the train came in. Scarcely had I searched deep inside my soul, when I found her whom my soul truly loveth. Barely had I started speaking when he interrupted me. Hardly had I entered home, when the bell rang. No sooner + PAST PERFECT, THAN + SIMPLE PAST No sooner had I put the phone down than it rang again. No sooner had I left the house than it started raining.

17. THIS IS WHERE WE STOPPED LAST WEEK SO, LET’S MOVE ON!

18. NEGATIVE AND LOCATIVE INVERSION

19. And now …

20. … let’s finish (off) adverbs and adjectives!

22. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

23. Comparison of ADJs & ADVs Comparison is a grammatical means which makes it possible to express the relative DEGREE of a property when compared in relation to a reference value (BASIS OF COMPARISON) Comparison of ADJs & ADVs can be analyzed from two different theoretical viewpoints: – Morphological analysis (i.e. the analysis of form) – Semantic analysis (i.e. the analysis of meaning) Comparison of ADJs and ADVs is semantically restricted: ONLY GRADABLE ADJs AND ADVs CAN BE COMPARED: √faster vs. *deader DEGREE is a grammatical category marked by inflectional morphemes used to specify the extent of a comparison.

24. COMPARISON OF ADJs & ADVs: morphological analysis Both the ADJECTIVAL PARADIGM and the ADVERB PARADIGM consist of three forms: – THE POSITIVE (ADJ: e.g. big ;ADV: e.g. well) – THE COMPARATIVE(ADJ: e.g. bigger ;ADV: e.g. better) – THE SUPERLATIVE(ADJ: e.g. biggest ;ADV: e.g. best) The comparative and superlative forms can be inflected (e.g. bigger) or periphrastic (e.g. more interesting), and the choice between the two is largely determined by the length of the adjective.

25. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES: morphological analysis (1/3) INFLECTED FORMS: monosyllabic adjectives – big-bigger-biggest – old-older-oldest – but (some exceptions): unhappy-unhappier… BOTH INFLECTED AND PERIPHRASTIC: disyllabic adjectives ending in: – -y: funny, noisy, wealthy, friendly – -ow: narrow, hollow, shallow – -le: gentle, feeble, noble – -er/ure: clever, nature, obscure – other: common, handsome, polite, quite and wicked.

26. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES: morphological analysis (2/3) INFLECTED FORMS: changes in spelling  FINAL BASE CONSONANTS are DOUBLED when the PRECEDING VOWEL IS STRESSED AND SPELLED WITH A SINGLE LETTER: – BIG – BIGGER - BIGGEST  IN BASES ENDING IN A CONSONANT + Y THE FINAL Y IS CHANGED TO I: – ANGRY– ANGRIER – ANGRIEST  IN BASES ENDING IN MUTE –E OR -EE E IS DROPPED BEFORE THE INFLECTIONAL SUFFIX: – PURE– PURER (not PUREER)- PUREST (not PUREEST) – FREE– FREER (not FREEER)- FREEST (not FREEEST)

27. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES: morphological analysis (3/3) PERIPHRASTIC FORMS: trisyllabic or longer adjectives – interesting, more interesting, most interesting IRREGULAR COMPARISON: good, bad, far, old, late, little, well/ill (health)

28. IS THIS REALLY TRUE?

29. “Have you ever been interviewed by somebody more old than me?” JEREMY CLARKSON

30. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS: morphological analysis INFLECTED FORMS: monosyllabic adverbs – Isn’t it possible for them to drive faster? – Who jumped highest in last year’s Olympics? – Exceptions: adverbs that are identical in form with adjective FOLLOW THE RULES FOR ADJECTIVES: e.g. early – earlier (NOT more early, although it is disyllabic). PERIPHRASTIC FORMS: disyllabic and longer adverbs – This book explains things a bit more comprehensively than the other one. – The new hotel is the more elegantly designed building in the city. IRREGULAR COMPARISON: well, badly, far, little, much

31. THE MEANINGS EXPRESSED THROUGH COMPARISON Semantic analysis of comparison

32. Let’s analyze Tom Cruise’s relationships from the point of view of HEIGHT as a gradable property. -Tom Cruise is shorter than Katie Holmes. -Tom Cruise is as tall as Nicole Kidman. -Tom Cruise is taller than Penelope Cruz.

33. COMPARISON OF ADJs & ADVs: semantic analysis TYPES OF COMPARISON Comparison of equivalence Comparison of non-equivalence to a higher degree to a lower degree comparison of sufficiency comparison of excess To the same degree: as/so…as John is as old as his girlfriend. Bill doesn’t study as hard as Jane. Comparative – for comparison between 2 persons, items etc. Superlative – for comparison between more than 2 persons, items, etc. Basis of comparison – either overt or implied Ana is cleverer/more clever than Jane (is). John is the politest of the students. To a lower degree: less & least The problem is less difficult than the previous one. Comparison of sufficiency: enough, so/such…that She was tall enough to play basketball. Comparison of excess: too, so/such…that She was too short to play basketball.

34. STRUCTURES USED TO EXPRESS COMPARISON Adjective Phrase with complementation: – AP=A+PPJohn is as tall [ PP as Peter]. – AP=A+clauseJohn is as tall [ CLAUSE as Peter is]. Adverb Phrase with complementation: – AdvP=AdvP+PP I can play tennis much better [ PP than Joe]. – AdvP=AdvP+cl I play tennis much better [ CLAUSE than he ever will]. Noun Phrases with complementation: – NP=Q+N+PPI have more friends [ PP than Bill]. – NP=Q+N+clI have more friends [ CLAUSE than Bill does]. Comparative clauses are complement clauses of ADJs, ADVs and Ns used for expressing comparison: I love you AdvP [more than you think]. He is not AP [as clever as she is]. She has NP [more friends than you can imagine].

35. THE END OF AP & AdvP

36. So, where are we in the course?

37. CLASS #1: AP CLASS #2: AP/AdvP CLASS #3: AdvP, PP CLASS #4: PP CLASS #5: ADVERBIALS CLASS #6: ADVERBIALS CLASS #7: MIDTERM OVERVIEW AND SIMPLE SENTENCE INTRO MIDTERM TEST CLASS #8: SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #9: SIMPLE SENTENCE CLASS #10: COMPLEX SENTENCE CLASS #11: COMPLEX SENTENCE CLASS #12: COMPLEX SENTENCE, WRAP-UP & ORAL EXAM HINTS

38. And now…

39. … believe it or not…

40. … something really new…

41. Prepositions & The Prepositional Phrase

42. PREPOSTIONS & PPs v.s. other POSs & XPs Other POSs and XPs: Mary is playing interesting games. [NP] Mary is playing games. [NP] Prepositions and PPs: Mary is playing in the garden. [PP: ADVERBIAL] *Mary is playing in. [PP]. The girl in the garden is playing tennis [PP: complement of NP] *The girl in is playing tennis. [PP] ENDOCENTRIC PHRASE – THE HEAD DETERMINES THE INTERPRETATION /MEANING OF THE PHRASE (MEANING OF THE HEAD = MEANING OF THE PHRASE) AND THE HEAD OF THE PHRASE DOES NOT REQUIRE ANY COMPLEMENTATION. EXOCENTRIC PHRASE – THE HEAD DOES NOT HAVE THE SAME MEANING AS THE WHOLE PHRASE AND THE HEAD REQUIRES OBLIGATORY COMPLEMENTATION.

43. SO WHAT ARE PREPOSITIONS REALLY LIKE? PREPOSITIONS ARE LIKE PARASITES: THEY HAVE TO ATTACH TO SOMETHING IN ORDER TO ‘SURVIVE’. PREPOSITIONS ATTACH TO THEIR COMPLEMENTS (NP, ADVP), AS TICKS ATTACH TO CATS.

44. PREPOSTION-LIKE WORDS – problems with multiple membership PREPOSITION-LIKE WORDs: We left before the last act. That happened before he read the report. I had only seen her once before. NOUNS, VERBS, ADJECTIVES: We know the last act. I know he read the report. I know. Head of PP CONJUNCTION introducing a clause Head of AdvP Head of VP THE TYPE OF COMPLEMENT DETERMINES THE INTERPRETATION OF THE WORD. THE TYPE OF COMPLEMENT DOES NOT DETERMINE THE INTERPRETATION OF THE WORD.

45. DIGRESSION: multiple membership WHAT IS THE MOST VERSATILE WORD IN ENGLISH?

46. A word or two about LIKE:

47. LIKE can be a NOUN: – We all have our own likes and dislikes when it comes to food. – Soldiers, policemen, and the like were all called in to help with the emergency. LIKE can be a PREPOSITION: – Her hair is dark brown like mine. – What's their house like inside? LIKE can be a VERB: – I like your jacket. LIKE – parts of speech

48. LIKE can be an ADVERB: – The water was, like, really cold. – I asked Dave if he wanted to go, and he's like, no way! LIKE can be a CONJUNCTION: – No one else can score goals like he can! – Don't talk to me like you talk to a child. LIKE can be an ADJECTIVE: – The second dispute was sorted out in a like manner. – They get on well together because they areof like mind. – Try to buy two fish of like size. LIKE – parts of speech

49. END OF DIGRESSION: BACK TO PREPOSITIONS

50. STATUS: Prepositions are a CLOSED CLASS OF ELEMENTS FUNCTION: to connect two units in a sentence and specify a relationship between them FORM: simple and complex – SIMPLE: consist of ONE WORD: at, in, on, with… – COMPLEX: consist of TWO OR MORE WORDS: into, out of, in front of, on top of, in terms of, as a result of, owing to, due to, devoid of… Prepositions are heads of PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES (i.e. a prepositional phrase is phrase which has a preposition as its head) CHARACTERISTICS OF PREPOSITIONS

51. The PP typically consists of a prepositional head followed by an NP as its complement: PP=P+NP e.g. [ PP in [ NP a village] ]  however, the complement of the preposition is not always an NP, the prepositional complements can also be a FINITE WH-CLAUSE, NON-FINITE -ING CLAUSE or an ADVERB: PP=P+Clause e.g. [ PP from [ Clause what you wrote] ] PP=P+Clause e.g. [ PP at [ Clause reading her novel] ] PP=P+Adv e.g. [ PP for [ Adv ever] ] THE PP – its form

52. Optionally, PPs can be premodified by adverbs: PP= Adv + P + complement [straight Adv through HEAD [ NP the wall ] ] [ right Adv over HEAD [ AdvP there ] ] [ exactly Adv from HEAD [ Clause what you were saying ] ] THE PP – its form (continued…)

53. Normally, prepositions precede their complements. However, sometimes the simple preposition is STRANDED/DEFERRED from its prepositional NP complement. There are two types of preposition stranding: – OBLIGATORY STRANDING – OPTIONAL STRANDING (stylistic reasons) THE PP – its form (continued…) OBLIGATORY STRANDING  In passive constructions: The solution has been arrived at. vs. * At the solution has been arrived.  P complements are thematized/emphasized in sentences with –ing/inf clauses: That man is unpleasant to work with. vs. * With that man is unpleasant to work. OBLIGATORY STRANDING  In passive constructions: The solution has been arrived at. vs. * At the solution has been arrived.  P complements are thematized/emphasized in sentences with –ing/inf clauses: That man is unpleasant to work with. vs. * With that man is unpleasant to work. OPTIONAL STRANDING (stylistic reasons)  Question: Who was it stolen by? vs. By who was it stolen? BOTH OK  Relative clauses: The man with whom you work … vs.The man who(m) you work with … BOTH OK OPTIONAL STRANDING (stylistic reasons)  Question: Who was it stolen by? vs. By who was it stolen? BOTH OK  Relative clauses: The man with whom you work … vs.The man who(m) you work with … BOTH OK

54. THE PP – its function FUNCTIONS OF THE PP INDEPENDENT i.e. it’s a sentence element DEPENDENT / PARTS OF OTHER PHRASES PARTICLES OF PHRASAL VERBS

55. THE PP – its function: independent PP has an independent function in the sentence ADVERBIALCs / Co SUBJECT (rarely) ADJUNCT: He lives in a village. CONJUNCT: In a nutshell, she’s OK. DISJUNCT: To my surprise, she’s OK. Cs (subject complement): The play is by Webster. The fence is of wood. Co (object complement): I consider them at great risk. SUBJECT: In love is how I want to feel. In my house is where I want to be.

56. THE PP – its function: dependent PP is a part of another phrase PART OF NPPART OF AP [ the girl with the funny red hat ] [ the man in the raincoat ] [ the book on the table ] [ grateful for your help] [ suitable for the job ] [ complex beyond our expectations] They can also be parts of AdvP: He drives faster [PP than John].

57. Compare: She looked after the children. She came after the children. Phrasal verbs are combinations of verbs followed by particles (preposition particles and adverb particles) which change the initial meaning of the verb. THE PP – its function: prepositional particles of phrasal verbs VP PP

58. The best test to see if a particle is a preposition particle or an adverb particle is to substitute the object NP with a pronoun. Compare: He looked after the children. He looked them after. He looked after them. He looked up the word. He looked it up. He looked up it. THE PP – its function: prepositional particles of phrasal verbs PRONOUN HAS TO FOLLOW THE PARTICLE = IT’S A PREPOSITION PARTICLE PRONOUN HAS TO PRECEDE THE PARTICLE = IT’S AN ADVERB PARTICLE

59. THEY ARE TEARING UP THE STREET. They are tearing it up. ADVERB PARTICLE ?They are tearing up it. PREPOSITIONAL PARTICLE aaa

60.  Sometimes the preposition particle doesn’t change the meaning, but changes the verb class: They agreed. = intransitive verb They agreed to the plan. The plan was agreed to.  Prepositional phrasal verbs cannot be used as freely in the passive voice as in the active: The result was eventually arrived at. (figurative) The stadium was eventually arrived at. THE PP – its function: prepositional particles of phrasal verbs transitive verb

61. NOW…

62. The most complex theoretical section on prepositions!

63. SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF PREPOSITIONS IT’S ALL ABOUT MEANING!

64. BASIC PREPOSITIONAL MEANINGS PREPOSITIONAL MEANINGS SPACE TIME PROCESSCONTINGENCY OTHER MEANINGS

65. WHO IS AT THE BANK? The robbers are IN the bank. The man is AT the bank.

66. WHICH HORSE IS IN THE FIELD? The horse is IN the field. The horse is ON the field.

67. The student is ON the Faculty of Philosophy. The student is IN the Faculty of Philosophy. The student is AT the Faculty of Philosophy. Where is the student?

68. DIGRESSION: Steven Pinker One of the three greatest linguists in the world (although he is actually a psycholinguist):

69. The student is AT the Faculty of Philosophy. Where is the student?

70. CHOOSING THE RIGHT PREPOSITIONAL MEANING Intuitive for native speakers. One of the biggest problems in achieving native-like proficiency for non-native speakers. Therefore, we will devote a lot of time to the meanings of prepositions. If you want to find out more, there are many great books on prepositions. I would, however, suggest these ones:

71. The Ins and Outs of prepositions: A Guidebook for ESL Students Jean Yates Paperback: 272 pages Publisher: Barron's Educational Series (July 1999) Language: English ISBN-10: 0764107577 ISBN-13: 978- 0764107573 Price: $8.41

72. English Prepositions Explained: Revised edition Seth Lindstromberg Paperback: 286 pages Publisher: John Benjamins Publishing Company; 2 edition (August 11, 2010) Language: English ISBN-10: 9027211744 ISBN-13: 978-9027211743 Price: $35.39

73. BASIC PREPOSITIONAL MEANINGS PREPOSITIONAL MEANINGS SPACE TIME PROCESSCONTINGENCY OTHER MEANINGS

74. THE END OF PREPOSITIONS

75. THE END THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME! CU NEXT WEEK!