1. Constituency Tests Phrase Structure Rules
Syntax Continued
Constituency Tests
Phrase Structure Rules

2. How to determine constituency
Semantic Intuitions
sometimes, we just know that certain strings of words go together as a unit.
Constituency Tests (more reliable)
tests that can be applied to string of words in a given sentence to determine if the string is a constituent or not.

3. Three kinds of constituency tests
Stand Alone Test
Substitution Test
Movement Test

4. Stand Alone Test
A constituent can often be replaced by a question expression such as who, what, where, how, why, or do/did what.
The replaced constituent can then stand alone as an answer to the question.

5. Stand Alone Test Q: Where did Clarice play the accordion?
Clarice played the accordion under the table.
Q: Where did Clarice play the accordion?
A: under the table
Q: Clarice played what under the table?
A: the accordion

6. Substitution Test Only constituents can be replaced by pro-forms.
Pro-form examples
pronouns she, he, it, they, us, her, that
pro-verbs do, be
pro-adverbs there, then, here
pro-adjectives such, so, thus

7. Substitution Test Clarice played the accordion under the table.
Clarice played the accordion there.
Clarice played it under the table.
Clarice did. (Who played the accordion under the table?)

8. Movement Test
If a string can be moved to the beginning of a sentence, it is a constituent.
Clarice played the accordion under the table.
Under the table, Clarice played the accordion.
? The accordion Clarice played under the table. (We already know this is a constituent.)
* Played the accordion under the table Clarice.
(We already know this is a constituent.)
Sometimes, constituency tests won’t work for strings that are actually constituents.

9. When applying constituency tests, keep this in mind…
The tests are not foolproof. Often a constituent will only pass two of the three tests.
Decide whether or not a string is a constituent based on how convincing the test results are.
One strong pass is enough to determine constituency in some cases.

10. When applying constituency tests, keep this in mind…
We can only say whether or not a string is a constituent relative to a particular sentence.
Time flies like an arrow.
Fruit flies like a banana.
We watched shooting stars all night
The Milky Way was shooting stars from the galactic center.

11. Phrase Structure Rules
Our Grammar Consists of a set of rules acquired in order to form sentences
They are formed by putting words from different lexical categories together
PSRs (Phrase Structure Rules) differ from language to language.

12. Lexical category Parts of speech Many words, limited categories
What you learned in school
Noun
Person, place or thing
Verb
Action word
Adjective
Describes something

13. But… “bad” “sandwich” “oops, my bad”
“to sandwich something between two things”

14. Determiners a, an, the, every, this, that, those, her, his, my, yours
______ (Adj) N
Det

15. Nouns
______ + plural morpheme {-s}
Det (Adj) ______ N

16. Adjectives ______ + comparative/superlative morpheme (-er, -est)
more/most ______; very/quite ______
linking verb ______ (seems, feels, is)
Det ______ N A

17. Verbs ______ + progressive morpheme {-ing}
______ + past tense morpheme {-ed}
auxiliary verb ______ (must, will, might)
to ______
___ (NP) (PP) V

18. Prepositions at, up, over, into, above, through right ______ NP ___ NP

19. Phrasal Categories
Phrasal Categories: A set of constituents that behave the same and share the same function.
Phrasal Category is named after its head element:
The boy, a girl, girls are NP’s.
NP[The boy] VP[hit him]

20. Phrase Structure Rules (PSRs)
Make observations about language
subject and predicate (NP and VP)
Make a rule
S  NP VP
“a sentence consists of an NP and a VP”

21. Noun phrases (NPs) Cats make good pets The book is red
NP  N
The book is red
NP  Det N
My friendly neighbor enjoys jogging
NP  Det Adj N

22. Collapse the rules NP  N NP  Det N NP  Det Adj N

23. English PSRs S  NP VP NP  (Det) (AP) N VP  V (NP) (PP)
AdjP  (Adv) Adj
PP  P NP

24. Building trees
Words and rules
Different ways
top-down
bottom-up

25. Top-down S

26. Top-down S VP NP

27. Top-down S VP
NP NP V

28. Top-down S VP
NP NP
Det A N V Det A N

29. Top-down S VP NP NP Det A N V Det A N
My new roommate eats my leftover food

30. My new roommate eats my leftover food
Bottom-up
My new roommate eats my leftover food

31. Bottom-up
Det A N V Det A N
My new roommate eats my leftover food

32. Bottom-up NP NP Det A N V Det A N
My new roommate eats my leftover food

33. Bottom-up VP NP NP Det A N V Det A N
My new roommate eats my leftover food

34. Bottom-up S VP NP NP Det A N V Det A N
My new roommate eats my leftover food

35. Practice Sentences The energetic boy ran up the hill.
The little dog ate the biscuits.