1. HI 112 A Survey of Modern Europe Raffael Scheck Colby College

2. Myself n Miller 250 n rmscheck@colby.edu n Tel. 859-5331 n Office hours: MWF, 11-12, or by appt.

3. Introduction n Course Content and Mechanics n What is Modernity?

5. Society and Everyday Life 1600-1750

6. Religion and Mentalities n Religiosity dominated by fear of eternal damnation. Example: Walpurgisnacht 1702 n Communal mindset: salvation possible only through the group n Hence: religious intolerance n Wars of religion in the 16th century n The Thirty Years War 1618-1648

7. Cities and the Countryside n The vast majority (over 90%) live in the countryside n Cities still resemble the medieval city n Urbanization (density of cities) is higher in western Europe than in eastern Europe

8. The Social Order n The vast majority are born to work and serve and will always be poor n Very little social mobility, except in cities n Aristocracy in possession of the land n Feudalism in the West: peasants owe services to the lords and the king n Serfdom in the East: peasants belong to the lord like cattle

9. The Economy n Subsistence farming n No machines, only tools n Barter, and local trading; but some money economy, too n Small climate changes produce famines n “Lord, protect us from plague, famine, and war” n Trade centered on cities, but still small (mostly transportable goods such as precious metals, spices, silk, wine, lumber)

10. The Family before 1750: Western and Eastern Variations n Western Family – Nuclear Family – Late Marriage – Young people work in other household to save for their own – Communal control – High Child Mortality n Eastern Family – Extended family – Serfdom – Early marriage – Extremely high child mortality – Control of the lord

11. State-Building and Absolutism

12. The State Before 1618 n Poor communications n Weak administrative structure n Much local difference; sometimes overlapping patchwork of different legal and administrative spaces (taxation; laws; weights and measures) n No state services (such as schools, police, welfare) n Kings are „primus inter pares“; conflict with lords over taxation, service, and religion n Parliaments n The Catholic Church: A state within the state?

13. What Changes after 1600? n Efforts by kings to centralize authority n Struggle of kings with regional and local lords, parliaments, cities, and the church n Attempts by kings to secure revenue, build up a state administration for collecting revenue, and to undermine the money- granting power of parliaments and lords

14. Why Does This Occur? n Need for greater income, fueled by growing economic opportunity and military expenses n Spirit of the age: rationalization, modernization n International competition

15. Absolutism n Differentiation between state-building and absolutism n „Rex legibus absolutus est“ n French theorists: Bodin and Bossuet n Motivation: strong ruler seen as safeguard against the chaos and anarchy of the religious wars

16. How Does One Build an Absolutist State? n Central aim: undermine the power of the lords (aristocracy) n Co-optation and pressure (carrot and the stick) n Formation of a new (royal) nobility - often as an administrative elite (noblesse de robe) n Potential alliance with the peasants n Problems with religion

17. Some Successful Examples of Absolutism n Spain under Charles V and Phillip II (sixteenth century) n France (seventeenth century) n Russia, Austria, Brandenburg-Prussia (eighteenth century)

18. Successful Examples of State- Building without Absolutism n England n The United Provinces (Netherlands)

19. Some Major Snafus n The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation n Poland

20. The Holy Roman Empire and Poland (1618)

21. Absolutism in France

22. The Foundations of Absolutism in France (1598-1643) n Main policies: 1. Raising money through government monopolies, trading companies, investment in canals etc. 2. Expansion 3. Assault on the nobility 4. Buildup of a royal administration (intendants, noblesse de robe) Cardinal Richelieu Louis XIII Mercantilism Corvée (labor tax) Huguenots

23. Absolutism under Louis XIV n Fronde uprising, 1649-52 n Louis XIV’s Absolutism – Wooing the nobles – Ideological justification of his rule – Court – War on the Huguenots n Struggle for European Hegemony (1667-1714) Mazarin “L’état c’est moi” War of Spanish Succession (1701- 1714)

24. Sophia Scheck in Versailles

25. Louis XIV‘s Legacy n Strong monarchy but weak finances n Strong European but weak overseas position n France as the model for absolutist Europe (military, aristocratic culture, language, literature, architecture)

26. Constitutionalism in England

27. Principal Motives n Similar struggle as in France, but different outcome n Crown needs revenue and clashes with Parliament n Assertive upper nobility (gentry) dominating Parliament n Unresolved religious situation – Anglican Church – Pressure for theological reform of the Anglican Church (Puritans) – Pressure for re-Catholicization n International complications through marriage alliances (Spain, France, the Netherlands)

28. England under James I (1603- 1625) n Believes in the divine right of kings; does not want to share power with Parliament n Badly needs money (debt from Elizabeth I). Raises revenue through customs (to bypass Parliament) n Frustrates Puritan demands for church reform (refuses to dismantle the episcopal system); allows games on Sundays (to reconcile Catholics) n Puritans do not trust him because his mother was a Catholic (Mary Stuart) n Avoids war (expenses), but Parliament forces him into war with Spain in 1624 (partly religious motivation)

29. Toward Revolution: Charles I (1625-49) n Inherits financial crisis and war with Spain; even bigger need for revenue n Has to call Parliament in 1629; furious confrontation n Decides to do without Parliament in 1630; creates new nobility (through selling titles) n Fatal mistake: tries to impose the Anglican Church on Calvinist Scotland; triggers rebellion and has to call Parliament for funds (1640). Parliament takes control n Chaos and civil war 1642 (rebellion also in Ireland). Charles I is defeated in 1645 and executed in 1649

30. Dictatorship and Restoration n Oliver Cromwell - dictator based on a fanatical and well-organized radical Puritan army n Abolishes the monarchy and represses the Anglican Church and even the moderate Protestants n Becomes increasingly unpopular. After his death (1658): call for restoration of the monarchy

31. The Pragmatism of Charles II (1660-85) n Restores the Anglican Church and the situation of 1642 n Favors religious tolerance but has ministers who want to repress Puritans and Catholics n Conducts trade wars with the Netherlands (revenue) n Makes tricky secret agreement with France: subsidies for conversion to Catholicism; Parliament reacts by tightening repression of Catholics n Subdues Parliament through repression: execution and expulsion of some of his enemies n Careful and pragmatic leader

32. James II (1685-88) and the Glorious Revolution (1688-89) n James II forfeits everything by promoting devout Catholics. Wants to combine the buildup of absolutism with a re-Catholicization of England n Birth of a male heir in 1688 triggers new revolution by Parliament, which invites William of Orange (a Dutch lord married to James‘ Protestant daughter Mary) to take the throne n William and Mary expel James II and agree to a bill of rights limiting monarchic power and excluding Catholics from the throne. Contractual theory on relations between monarch and „people“

33. The Outcome n Permanently weak monarchy (Act of Settlement, 1701, giving the throne to the Elector of Hannover - 1714) n But: successful state-building centered on Parliament, with elites willing to work together and to pay taxes n Outlines of a constitutional system built around civil liberties, security of property, and restrictions on the king (who is an arbiter or chairman rather than absolutist ruler); stability

34. International Politics and Warfare before 1789

35. The Military Revolution (ca. 1500-1700) n Firearms - cannon, hand guns - trump the infantry armies with pikes and crossbows (which had earlier defeated the horse-mounted knight armies) n Much larger, more professionalized armies. Longer training. More peasants serve in the armies, fewer mercenaries. Desertion and supply remain large problems, however n Revolution in naval warfare. From the galley to the frigate. Battle in line. Broadsides n Global consequences: Europeans dominate 35% of the world’s regions by 1750 (the Americas, the African coast, South Asia). Exception: East Asia

36. Cannon

37. Portable Firearms

38. Defended City (Dunkirk, after Vauban)

39. Second Siege of Vienna (1683)

40. Spanish Galleon, ca. 1500

41. Mediterranean Galleon, 1550

42. Battle of Lepanto, 1571

43. The Mary Rose, 1545

44. The Vasa, 1628

45. The Frigate, ca. 1770

46. Fundamentals of Warfare n War and foreign policy are matters of kings, not the people. No mass nationalism. Provinces change hands without consideration for the will of the inhabitants n Wars are fought between rulers, not nations. Ideology does not matter; religion matters less after 1600. Wars usually are fought for limited aims, not total destruction n War is a frequent occurrence. Wars happen for all but 15-20 years every century

47. Principles of International Relations n Balance of Power n Dynastic legitimacy n Reason of state

48. The Power Struggles in Eastern Europe n The Swedish challenge; gamble to conquer a huge Baltic empire fails 1700-1721 (defeat against Russia) n Poland and the Ottoman Empire loose n Russian expansion n Austria: wins Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) and strong position in Italy and the Balkans n Prussia wins Silesia from Austria and some territory from Poland (Polish partitions with Russia and Austria, 1772, 1793, 1795)

49. The Power Struggles in Western Europe n Spain, France, and England as colonial rivals. Mercantilism n Traditional rivalry between France and the Habsburgs (Austria and Spain) n Revamping of alliances during the Seven Years War (1756-63): France allies with Austria and Russia, Britain with Prussia n Britian becomes the world power by 1763 n But: cost of war triggers demand for more revenue and, indirectly, revolution (America, France)

50. Europe in 1600

51. Europe in 1720

52. Europe in 1777

53. Revolution in Science and World Views

54. Scholasticism, the Traditional World View n Everything worth knowing has been revealed – A) in the Bible and the writings of the church fathers – B) in the writings of ancient philosophers and scientists n Hence: focus on interpretation n Observation and experimentation are of secondary importance n Merits of scholasticism: synthesis of ancient and medieval thought n Limits of scholasticism: always focused on the past. Had become stale by 1500

55. The Rational World View in Science n Impulses from Humanism and the Renaissance: focus on method, not contents. Textual analysis of old scriptures triggers doubt in their actual form n Focus on observation, experiment, attempts to formulate universal laws n Interest in improving life, society, the economy (appealing to state-building monarchs) n Disenchantment with religion?

56. Some Examples: Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) n Observation of planetary movements through the telescope n Argument that the universe behaved according to mathematical laws n Conclusions: God’s truth is lawful and can be discovered by humans through observation

57. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) n Introduced a mathematically reasoned theory of gravity n Idea that what can be mathematically constructed must somehow be observable in reality

58. Deism n Universe as a big clockwork of causes and effects. Dominated by laws and regularity, not arbitrary and haphazard n God as a rational being. Clockmaker and initial cause, but not somebody who intervenes later on n Mechanistic universe; challenge to magic

60. Some Rationalist Philosophers: Francis Bacon (1561-1626) n Stress on empirical work to discover the truth and to improve the human condition (utilitarian aspect) n Inductive method: Discover a law from observing single phenomena and then try to confirm the law by multiplying the observations

61. René Descartes (1596-1650) n Start thinking from “clear and distinct ideas”, then proceed from one rational idea to the next conclusion (deductive thought) n Reality divided into thought and material (soul and body). Mathematical laws applied only to the latter. Difficulties with explaining the relation between them

62. Political Thought n Belief in the perfectibility of humans and society through human efforts n Reason and science can help improve life before death

63. Examples: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) n Leviathan: Humans are in their “state of nature” anarchic beasts. Reason dictates that they select a strong leader through a social contract (absolutist monarchy justified by reason) n Supportive of Charles II’s efforts to build a pragmatic absolutism after civil war and anarchy

64. John Locke (1632-1704) n Second Treatise on Government: social contract of the “people” to accept a king as supreme arbiter n Thinker most closely connected to the “Glorious Revolution”

65. Conclusions n Wide-open new frontier in thought; comforting to some, alarming to many n Challenge to religion n Many governments embrace some of these views and use them in their fights against older vested interests, particularly of the church. Rational administration - national standards and laws n But the new rational thought can also backfire on “rationalizing” rulers

66. The Rise of Enlightenment Thought

67. Basic Ideas n Rational thought inspires a broad intellectual movement across western and central Europe, favored by print culture (particularly in France) n Focus on rational self-determination: “Enlightenment is man's way out of self-imposed tutelage.” “Dare to be free!” (Immanuel Kant) n But: Freedom to accept and affirm limitations if they are rationally justified n Freedom FROM tutelage, superstition, repression, dictates of tradition, old rules of trade n Tolerance; rejection of fanaticism

68. Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729- 81) n Nathan der Weise (1779) n The original Nathan: Moses Mendelssohn (1729-86)

69. Improvement of the World n Collection of all knowledge in the French Encyclopedia (1751-72) as the basis for rational improvement of the world (Diderot and D’Alembert) n Reform of justice (Cesare Beccaria, 1738-94). Utilitarian principle rather than preparation for purgatory n Economic liberalism (Adam Smith, 1723-90). Against mercantilism: minimal state intervention (“invisible hand”); optimism about the abundance of resources

70. Voltaire (1694-1778) n Assault on religious fanaticism and bigotry (persecution of Huguenots) n Belief in rational rule through enlightened despotism n Main works: Candide, Zadig n Satiricist. “Ecrasez l’imfâme!”

71. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) n Representative and critic of the enlightenment n Realm of intuition, feeling n Emotional religion against deism: admiring a God of love and beauty n Alienation from state of nature. What to do now? n Influential political thought (Social Contract, General Will) n Cult figure of aristocracy

72. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) n Main works: Critique of Pure Reason; Critique of Practical Reason n Conflict of duty and inclination Ethical imperative: Always ask if the way you behave could become the foundation of a law for all humans that would benefit humanity as a whole. n Philosophy of perception: mind is no tabula rasa

73. Conclusions n Massive revolution in thought n Intellectual armory for a full-blown assault on the traditional order (church and religion, absolutist states, guilds and old trade structures) n Redefinition of the individual as a free, rational being with universal rights - not as a member of a corporate structure with corporate rights n Impulse for revolutionary and democratic movements (Age of “Atlantic Revolution”) n But: enlightenment has begun to cast doubt on itself (Rousseau, Kant)