9 Domains of Development

9 Domains of Development
1. Physical-Maturational 2. Cognitive-Intellectual 3. Artistic-Creative 4. Linguistic-Communicative Knowledge-Skill Social-Interpersonal Moral-Ethical 8. Personality-Individuality 9. Emotional-Affective Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Theorists Connected with Each of the 9 Domains of Development
1. Physical-Maturational (Gesell) 2. Cognitive-Intellectual (Piaget, Damon) 3. Social-Interpersonal (Youniss, Selman, Damon) 4. Moral-Ethical (Piaget, Kohlberg, Kagan, Hoffman, Damon) 5. Knowledge-Skill (Vygotsky, Damon) 6. Linguistic (Chomsky) 7. Artistic-Creative (Lowenfeld, Gardner) 8. Personality-Individuality (Freud, Erikson, Dowlby, Ainsworth) 9. Emotional-Affective (Hoffman, Kagan) Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Descriptors of These Theorists’ Models
Psychosexual Personality Development (Freud) Psychosocial Personality Development (Erikson) Developmental Tasks as Developmental Milestones (Havighurst) Cognitive Development (Piaget) Moral Reasoning Development (Kohlberg, Piaget, Havighurst) Moral Emotion Development (Hoffman, Kagan) Social-Conceptual Development (Damon, Selman, Youniss) Scaffolded Knowledge and Skill Development (Vygotsky, Damon) Ecological-Social Development (Bronfenbrenner) Maturational-Biological Milestones (Gesell) Ethological Personality-by-Attachment (Bowlby, Ainsworth) Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Some Developmental Mechanisms
Maturation (genetic program for growth) Imitation (essential for learning) Practice (essential for consolidation) Habituation (promotes novel exploration) Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Three issues addressed by developmental theorists
Continuity or Discontinuity of Growth Can development be characterized as a gradual change process, or does it present sudden, distinct bursts of change? The Influence of Maturation Versus Experience Is development primarily influenced by biologically inherited, genetic factors, or by environmental experiences (nature or nurture)? Individual Differences What makes individuals different? To what extent are individual characteristics stable over time? Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

ADULTHOOD ADULTHOOD INFANCY CONTINUOUS DISCONTINUOUS Some theories view development as a relatively continuous process. In contrast, stage theories assume that development is discontinuous and involves periodic qualitative milestone changes. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Age Range Developmental Phenomena Description of Stage Sensorimotor Experiencing the world through the senses and exploration (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, etc.) Birth to nearly 2 years of age Object permanence Stranger anxiety Preoperational Representing things with words and images but have no logical reasoning abilities Pretend play Egocentrism Rapid language development About 2 to 6 years of age Concrete operational Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing math operations About 7 to 11 years of age Conservation Mathematical transformations About 12 years of age through adulthood Formal operational Abstract reasoning; reflection; thinking about thinking Abstract logic Potential for moral reasoning Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage Concrete Operational
The child begins to interact with the environment The child begins to represent the world symbolically. Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage Concrete Operational Formal Operational Children learn rules such as game rules and the law of conservation, and they take them very seriously The adolescent can transcend concrete situations and think about the future and their own thinking Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Early symbolic thought
Formal Operational Mental operations are applied to abstract ideas; begin logical, systematic thinking; imagine hypothetical events; manipulate symbols in their minds Concrete Operational Mental operations are applied to concrete events only; mastery of conservation and hierarchical classification; cannot think abstractly Pre-Operational Early symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, concentration, & egocentrism; assume you know what they know; cannot decenter Sensorimotor Coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence; begin to explore environment Birth to 2 Years 2 to 7 Years 7 to 11 Years 12 to adult Piaget’s theory of cognitive development identifies four stages marked by qualitatively different modes of thinking. Interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
Types of Games and Play Pre-Cooperative Cooperative Parallel Egocentric Immature Cooperative Mature Cooperative A casual attitude toward game rules; few rules are understood; games ignored Rules are viewed as sacred, obligatory, unchangeable; game rules are vaguely understood Rules are viewed as a product of mutual consent; game rules are codified and of intense interest Game Rule Practice and Consciousness Heteronomy: morality of constraint; imposed constraints maintain egocentrism; constraints are a necessary precondition for the development of moral autonomy Autonomy: morality of cooperation; cooperation and reciprocity emerge from relationships among peer equals that deliver them from egocentrism to moral autonomy and a mature sense of justice Basic Morality Is Respect for Rules Sense of Justice Justice is what is commanded by authority: Heteronomy Equalitarianism Born of solidarity & mutual respect among equals Equity Consider intentions & situation when judging Thinking Capacity Pre-Operational Can't take the perspective of others; can't think about their own thinking Concrete Operational Take the perspective of others; conceptual but not abstract reasoning Formal Operational Can think logically and abstractly; can consider many viewpoints Concept of Responsibility Objective sense of responsibility: acts evaluated in terms of material consequences; evaluations based on observable factors Subjective sense of responsibility: acts evaluated in terms of motives/intentions; acts judged immoral if they violate norm of reciprocity central to moral rules Piaget’s explanations of children’s moral development have not been accurately described in the literature. Primary sources reveal that he did not view heteronomy or externally imposed goodness as a bad thing for young children or as an unnecessary and avoidable step in the process of becoming a moral person. Some have erroneously concluded that he was against punitive or expiatory sanctions of all kinds and at all ages. Those who read his writings rather than others’ interpretations of his writings quickly discover that he said relationships with children should be as cooperative as possible and that reciprocity sanctions should gradually replace expiatory or punitive sanctions. They will also discover that he had several parallel theories of moral development with each focusing on a different aspect of moral functioning. In addition, his intuitive ideas about moral affect proved to be close to the mark as recently revealed by Hoffman and Kagan. He wrote that young children at the pre-cooperation stage feel obligated to follow rules enjoined by respected adults and that the raw material of their sympathetic tendencies and emotional reactions become moral when subjected to rules. For children at the cooperative stage, he described feelings of obligation to follow rules emerging from cooperative relationships and mutual respect among equals and a related valuing of reciprocity in relationships. He stated that moral sentiments and moral motivation results when sympathetic tendencies and emotional reactions are subordinated to rules. We now know that children show a natural affective empathy from birth and that this makes the internalization of moral standards and the development of conscience possible through relationships. Piaget emphasizes the importance of cooperative relationships with peers, related games and game rules, changing conceptions of justice beginning with that commanded by authority, equalitarianism, and equity with the latter two corresponding to concrete operational and formal operational thinking. He explained that children’s conception of responsibility changes from objective to subjective, with the latter involving a consideration of intentionality. Piaget briefly described a morality of good which he said develops along side a morality of justice with the former emerging when the parent-child relationship is one of mutual affection. This concept corresponds to Gilligan’s ethics of care. You may recall hat she criticized Kohlberg for focuses on justice and ignoring care. Morality of Good Affection between parent and child yields morality of good; develops along side the morality of justice No further explanation Moral Affect Feeling of obligation to follow rules emerging from cooperation and respect among equals (reflects valuing of reciprocity); "moral sentiments and motivation" to do right reflect the subordination of early "sympathetic tendencies" and "affective reactions" to rules; "will" is the permanent set of constructed "values" to which one one adheres Feeling of obligation to follow rules of respected authority; raw material for future autonomous moral behavior is present in sympathetic tendencies and affective reactions Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000

Robert Havighurst’s “Developmental Task Theory”
Click Here He also introduced the concepts of “teachable moment,” “authoritarian conscience,” and “rational conscience,” concepts similar to those of Piaget. The idea of "developmental tasks" is appropriately credited to Robert Havighurst who stated that the concept was developed in the 1930s and 40s by Frank, Zachry, Prescott, and Tyron. He further stated, “The developmental-task concept occupies a middle ground between two opposing theories of education: the theory of freedom — that the child will develop best if left as free as possible; and the theory of constraint — that the child must learn to become a worthy, responsible adult through restraints imposed by his society [inculcation]. A developmental task is midway between an individual need and a societal demand. It assumes an active learner interacting with an active social environment.” Tasks for three of the developmental stages are presented on the next three slides. Drawn from the description of Havighurst’s book in Developmental Advising: Annotated Bibliography for Research Published Prior to 1999, an annotated bibliography compiled by G. Steele and Melinda McDonald for the NACADA Journal. Retrieved from The book is Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay. Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Developmental Tasks of Middle Childhood: Ages 6-12
1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games; 2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism; 3. Learning to get along with age-mates; 4. Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role; 5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating; 6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday living; 7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values; 8. Achieving personal independence; 9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions. Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence Ages 12-18
Developmental Tasks of Adolescence Ages 12-18 1. Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes; 2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role; 3. Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively; 4. Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults; 5. Preparing for marriage and family life; 6. Preparing for an economic career; 7. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology; 8. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior. Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay. Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Early Adulthood Developmental Tasks of 1. Selecting a mate;
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine social role; 3. Learning to live with a marriage partner; 4. Starting a family; 5. Rearing children; 6. Managing a home; 7. Getting started in an occupation; 8. Taking on civic responsibility; 9. Finding a congenial social group. Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Speaking in Sentences 30-49 Months
16 of 25 consonant sounds by 30 months Early Language Development words 36 Months Speaking in Sentences Months See cat! Telegraphic means lacking connection words 11 of 14 Vowel Sounds by 30 Months Telegraphic Speeking Months Holophrasic Months Grpmph! One-Word Utterances 9-18 Months Jargon Period at 9 Months Classic Babbling Baby 4-9 Months Sounds More Similar to Adults Cat! said with gestures; serves as whole sentence Cooing & Listening 2-4 Months Many More Sounds Than Needed Crying & Grunting 0-2 Months 9-12 months is the quiet period since there is a decrease in vocalization Gradual narrowing of sounds to meaningful phonemes of the language being learned

and experience in interaction with genotype.
Epigenetic principle: genetically determined unfolding of maturation; HOW we turn out is a function of social/environmental forces and experience in interaction with genotype. Erikson, E.H. (1950). Childhood and Society. New York:Norton. Erikson, E.H. (1964). Insight and Responsibility. NewYork: Norton. To learn more about Erikson, begin here: Integrity versus Despair Have I lived a full life and taken advantage of what life offered? Generativity versus Absorption Will I produce something of real value or leave a legacy? Intimacy versus Isolation Shall I share my life with another or live alone? Identity versus Role Confusion Who am I and where am I going? Industry versus Inferiority Am I Competent or am I a worthless failure? Initiative versus Guilt Am I Good or am I Bad? Autonomy versus Shame & Doubt Can I do things myself or must I depend on others? Trust versus Mistrust Is my world Predictable and Supportive? Infancy Babies Early Childhood Late Childhood Young Adulthood Toddlerhood Adolescence Middle Age Late Adult Erikson’s theory of personality development proposes that people move through eight stages during their lives. Each stage brings a psychosocial crisis or conflict that needs to be resolved interactively. Each involves confronting a question such as, “Who am I and where am I going?” The stages are described above in terms of personality traits that are potential outcomes from handling these crises. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial-Developmental Crises
(Stages) of Personality Formation Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004 © Developmental Stages and Age Ranges Psychosocial Crisis or Conflict Significant Relations Important Events Healthful Virtues Problematic Traits Oral-Sensory Birth to Months Trust vs Mistrust Hope Faith Sensory Distortion Withdrawal Mother Feeding Muscular-Anal 18 Months to 3 Years of Age Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt Toilet Training Will Independence Impulsivity Compulsivity Self-Doubt Parents Locomotion to Years of Age Initiative vs Guilt Purpose Courage Imagining Cruelty Inhibition Fear of Failure Family Exploration Doing Things Latency to Years of Age Industry vs Inferiority Neighbor & School Children School Making Things Well Competence Skill, Pride Conscience Inferiority Lack of Self-Confidence Adolescence to Years of Age Identity vs Role Confusion Peer Cliques Girl/Boy Friend Role Models Consolidation of Roles Identifications Fidelity Loyalty Fanaticism Repudiation Intimacy vs Isolation Friends & Life Partners Committed Relationships Love Trust Promiscuity Exclusivity Young Adult to Years of Age Generativity vs Self-Absorption Household Members & Work Mates Supporting Next Generation Caring Altruism Over- Extension Rejecting Middle Age to Years of Age Old Age to Years of Age Integrity vs Despair Mankind or “My-kind” Physical Decline Death Presumption Despair Wisdom Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Continued
Early Attachment Erikson proposes that our first major conflict is encountered in the first year Trust vs. Mistrust Infants develop trust through Social Attachment (see Attachment Theory) Adolescence is a transition period between childhood and adulthood that begins with puberty. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

In the second year of development the child encounters the conflict of Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt The child explores the environment and seeks the independence to do so. Parents who stifle their children during this stage cause feelings of shame and doubt. Some adolescents enter Piaget’s formal operational stage, in which the individual can reason about abstract as well as concrete situations. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

In the third year of development, the child faces the conflict of Initiative vs. Guilt The child starts to show initiative in play and control over emotions. The child also begins to gain a sense of what is right and wrong based on their experiences. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

From ages 6 through 12, the child faces the conflict over Industrious children build a sense of competence and self-confidence. Non-industrious children begin to develop inferiority complexes. Industry vs Inferiority Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (Scaffolded Knowledge/Skill Acquisition)
Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced by social and cultural factors via relationships. Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with more capable people, usually parents and teachers. The Zone of Proximal Development is the range of tasks a child cannot master alone. Even though they may be close to having the necessary mental skills, they need guidance in order to complete the tasks. Scaffolding is a framework of temporary support. Adults help children learn how to think by scaffolding or by supporting their attempts to solve problems and discover principles. Scaffolding must be responsive to children’s needs. Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Vygotsky’s Theory of Development
Zone of Proximal Development encompasses the range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but within their capacity to learn with guidance and assistance from adults or more skilled children. Scaffolding involves changing the level of support over the course of teaching something — the more skilled person/teacher adjusts the amount of guidance to fit students’ current performance level. Language and Thought: young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion – Vygotsky called this “inner speech” or private speech. Primary Source: Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Another source: Vygotsky, L. S. (1989). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. To learn more, begin with Clifford Morris’s information at entitled Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development 1.. Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Ecological Theories of Human Development
It is important to study human development in it’s broader social-environmental context because the structure of the environment influences development. Ecological Theories of Human Development Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
5 Environmental Systems: microsystem: setting where individual lives mesosystem: interrelations among microsystems comprising the local community exosystem: experiences in the larger social system or society of which the microsystem and mesosystem are parts macrosystem: the individual’s culture chronosystem: environmental events and transitions over time One PPT source retrieved at – no author identified. Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Changes in systems over time CHRONOSYSTEM MACROSYSTEM EXOSYSTEM Opportunities Structures Religion Mass Media SOCIETY AT LARGE Life Styles Choices MESOSYSTEM School Peer Group Legal System Subcultures MICROSYSTEM Where the individual lives School Peer Group Educational System Government Agencies Home INDIVIDUAL Cultural Norms Traditions Home Church Church Interrelations among microsystems Neighborhood Workplace Workplace Communication Technology Transportation Systems Neighborhood Life Course Options Patterns of Social Interchange Commerce and Industry CULTURE Dominant Beliefs and Ideologies Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

MATURATIONAL THEORIES
BIOLOGICAL- MATURATIONAL THEORIES Frontal Lobes Amniotic Sac Egg Placenta Sperm Cells Umbilical Cord Eye Liver Prenatal Development Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Biological-Maturational Theories of Development
 Emphasize the genetic, biological, and evolutionary basis of human development.  The central concept is maturation — a genetically predetermined sequence of physical and psychophysiological changes. These changes take place at about the same age for most people.  The environment has a significant influence on when changes occur and the degree of growth that takes place. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Affection for adults Elation Joy Delight Excitement Distress Anger
Affection for children Affection for adults Elation Joy Delight Excitement Distress Anger Jealousy Disgust Fear Months Emotions are rapidly differentiated from an initial capacity for excitement (K.M.B. Bridges, 1932). Today, there is great interest in genetically determined temperamental characteristics from which personality forms, such as sociability . K. M. B. Bridges, (1932). Emotional development in early infancy. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 37. Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Temperament The biological-genetic basis for the self-expressive, arousal, and self-regulatory components of personality. These are evident in infancy in the forms of activity level, irritability, fearfulness, sociability, etc. In 1977 Thomas & Chess stated that childhood temperamental characteristics are relatively innate and well-established by 2-3 months of age. They identified tree types of temperament evident in infancy: Easy ─ high approach response; positive mood (mild to moderate intensity); quick adaptability; Difficult ─ high withdrawal response; frequent negative mood of high intensity; slow adaptability; Slow-to-warm-up ─ many withdrawal responses ( mild to moderate intensity); slow adaptability. Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel In 1984 Buss & Plomin proposed the following criteria for temperament: Inherited, present early in development, predictive of later personality development. Buss, A., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early personality traits. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum. Side by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

There are critical periods during
Maturation does not take place in a vacuum. There are critical periods during which children must have certain types of experiences in order for perceptual and cognitive abilities to develop normally, thus confirming the “use it or lose it” saying. For example, in order to develop correct binocular depth perception, the eyes must receive sensory input between age one and three years. A child who was kept in confinement by her parents until the age of thirteen without being spoken to never acquired spoken language beyond two or three word phrases. Written and arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development
The mother’s behavior can harm her fetus in in several ways: Severely inadequate nutrition Risk of complications during delivery and neurological problems Increased risk of mental disorders later in life Drug use Fetal alcohol syndrome is a congenital set of physical and mental problems caused by alcohol use during pregnancy. This set includes microcephaly (small head), heart defects, hyperactivity, mental retardation, motor abnormalities, abnormal facial features. The affects of social drinking during pregnancy include deficient intelligence, a slow reaction time, weak motor skills, inattention, impulsivity, and poor social skills. Tobacco, alcohol, and drugs, both prescription and recreational, are also linked to birth defects. Viral Illnesses Viruses can affect prenatal development with the amount of damage depending on (a) when during pregnancy the mother becomes ill, (b) the type of illness, and (c) the medications taken. Rubella, syphilis, mumps, genital herpes, AIDS, and severe influenza can cause extreme abnormalities or death. A developing baby and its mother are linked through the placenta, and a mother’s behaviors can affect the baby dramatically. Severe maternal malnutrition is linked to increased risk of birth complications and neurological problems in the newborn. Moderate maternal malnutrition has been shown to have negative effects for many years after birth. Research links maternal malnutrition to vulnerability, schizophrenia, and other psychiatric disorders in adolescence and early adulthood. Maternal drug use can significantly impact a developing baby, even if the drugs are legal, like alcohol and cigarettes. Many drugs, both prescription and recreational, are linked to birth defects. Problems can even be caused by some over the counter drugs. Fetal alcohol syndrome is a collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with alcohol use during pregnancy. Problems include microcephaly, heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, and delayed mental and motor development. While degree of impairment has been shown to be related to the amount of alcohol consumed by a pregnant woman, current studies suggest that even normal social drinking can have enduring negative effects on children, including deficits in IQ, reaction time, motor skills, attention span, and math skills, as well as impulsive, antisocial, and delinquent behavior. Maternal illness can also interfere with prenatal development; the nature of the damage depends, in part, on when the mother contracts the illness. Some illnesses, such as AIDS and herpes, can be passed on to the baby. Slide prepared by Gordon Vessels. Primary sources: Gurnee, Mary C. and Sylvestri, Mario F. (2005). Teratogenicity of Drugs, accessed at U.S. Pharmacist, a Johnson Publication at The Ohio State University Medical Center (2005). Risks during pregnancy, a public service document accessed at

Attachment Theory Mary Ainsworth John Bowlby Postulate: the human infant is pre-adapted to respond to it’s caregiver. Evolutionary function: attachment behaviors promote close proximity to the caregiver so that the child can be protected from danger. Type of attachment is influenced by care-giving behavior; children can be categorized as: Secure Ambivalent (seek comfort but show anger or resistance) Avoidant Insecure-disorganized Primary source: Werner-Wilson, Ronald J. (2005). Types of attachment, a PPT slide show retrieved from Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Researching Attachment: Strange Situation Test
The Strange Situation Test involves separating the very young child (toddler) from its mother or primary caregiver and then reuniting the child with the parent. The infant is put through eight standardized episodes or situations, all meant to elicit differing levels of distress. These include an experimenter entering the room, one or both leaving, and a stranger entering either with or without the parent in the room. Based on the infant’s reaction to these situations, his or her type of attachment with the mother or is identified. From Messer, D. and Miller, S. (1999). Exploring Developmental Psychology. Copy of photo found at This is carried out under controlled and monitored conditions and involves carefully recording the child’s reactions and the parent’s behavior. It was developed by Mary Ainsworth who extended the earlier groundbreaking work of John Bowlby. Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Infant reunion responses following their separation from their mothers:
Secure (B type) behavior positive, greeting of mother, being comforted Avoidant (A type) behavior not seeking contact, avoiding gaze Ambivalent (C type) behavior not comforted, overly passive, show anger Disorganised (D type) Behavior totally disorganised and confused Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Mothers of ambivalent infants tend to be inconsistent, insensitive, and unpredictable in their interactions with their babies. The mothers of insecure-avoidant babies tend to be averse to physical contact, are inclined to interfere unnecessarily, and generally appear emotionally unavailable or dismissive. The mothers of insecure-disorganized infants are typically suffering from an unresolved trauma, such as abuse or the unresolved loss of an attachment figure, which results in their babies being afraid of them. The mother may actually be abusive or neglectful. Click to Learn More Source: Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1982). Attachment: retrospect and prospect. In C.M. Parkes and J. Stevenson-Hinde, (Eds.) The Place of Attachment in Human Behavior. (pp 3-30) New York: Basic Books. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005.

Correspondence Between Child & Adult Attachment Styles
CHILD ATTACHMENT STYLE PARENT ATTACHMENT STYLE SECURE: Limited distress, continued exploration after initial reunion SECURE/AUTONOMOUS: developmentally appropriate interaction; recognizes significance of attachment. AVOIDANT: child appears indifferent DISMISSING: dismissive about attachment; withdrawn and rejecting RESISTANT OR AMBIVALENT: child appears distressed and is preoccupied with caregiver and clingish PREOCCUPIED: recognizes significance of attachment but is preoccupied with past and appears angry; blurred or unclear boundaries DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED: difficult to categorize reunion with caregiver; describes 80% of maltreated children. UNRESOLVED/DISORGANIZED: frightened by memory of past; trauma promotes momentary disassociation; scripts child into past dramas Primary source: Werner-Wilson, Ronald J. (2005). Types of attachment, a PPT slide show retrieved from of_Attachment.ppt Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

10% 22% 63% 5% Avoidant Secure Ambivalent Unclassified
In the United States, about two thirds of all children from middle-class families are securely attached. About one child in three is insecurely attached. Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Bowlby’s Attachment Stages
Birth to 2-3 months Undiscriminating social responsivenss 2-3 months to 6-7 months Discriminating social responsiveness 6-7 months to 3 years Active proximity seeking /true attachment 3 years and older Goal-corrected partnership Sources: Bowlby, John. (1982). Attachment and Loss. Vol. 1. NY: Basic Books; list presented in this slide also listed in slide #5 created at the University of Idaho, retrieved at Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Separation Distress: Another Indicator of Attachment
100 80 Day-care Percentage of infants who cried when their mothers left 60 Groups of infants who had and had not experienced day-care were left by their mothers in an unfamiliar room. 40 Home 20 0.0 3.5 5.5 7.5 9.5 11.5 13.5 15.5 17.5 19.5 21.5 23.5 25.5 29 Age in months Gordon Vessels’ 2005 recreation of graph in a PPT show by Mahnaz Rehmatullah at He took it from Kagan, Jerome (1976), The role of the family during the first half decade. In V. Vaughn& T. Brazelton (Eds.), The family:Can it be saved? Chicago: Yearbook Medical Publishers.

Attachment Theory Research Findings
Main & Cassidy (1988) ─ Kindergarten children’s self-esteem was found to be related to secure attachment. Main, M., & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24, Lamb et al., (1984) ─ They found the link between attachment style and social-emotional adjustment was only there if family circumstances remained stable. Lamb, M. E., Thompson, R. A., Gardner, W. P., Charnov, E. L, & Estes, D. (1984). Security of infantile attachment as assessed in the "strange situation": Its study and biological interpretation. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 7, Frankel & Cates (1990) ─ They found that securely attached infants became better problem solvers than insecurely attached infants. Crandell & Hobson (1999) ─ They compared 20 secure and 16 insecure mothers and their kids who were all three years old; the children of secure mothers scored 19 points higher on an IQ test; the degree of parent-child “synchrony” was also related to the children’s IQs. Crandell, L.E. and Hobson, R.P. (1999). Individual Differences in Young Children's IQ: A Social-developmental Perspective, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, vol. 40, no. 3, pp (10). Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Park & Waters (1989) ─ They found that securely attached children coordinate their activities with friends more harmoniously than others. Park, K. A., & Waters, E. (1989). Security of attachment and preschool friendships. Child Development, 60, Meins & Russell (1997) ─ They found greater social responsiveness and flexibility for securely attached children age two and one-half years. Meins, E, & Russell, J (1997). Security and symbolic play: the relation between security of attachment and executive capacity British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1, 63-76 Sroufe et al., (1993) ─ In this longitudinal study, the researchers found that year old children identified as securely attached in their first year had more positive “outcomes.” Avoidant infants became isolated. Ambivalent infants became deviant and more difficult to manage at home and school (e.g. hyperactive, aggressive, etc.). Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Kreutzer, T. (1990). The fate of early experience following developmental change: Longitudinal approaches to individual adaptation in childhood. Child Development, 61, Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (1999). One social world: The integrated development of parent-child and peer relationships. In W. A. Collins & B. Laursen (Eds.) Relationships as developmental context: The 29th Minnesota symposium on child psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Fonagy et al., (19907) ─ They found that secure preschoolers and young school-age children were more competent on various mental tasks. Fonagy, P, Redfern, S, Charman, T (1997). The relationship between belief-desire reasoning and a projective measure of attachment security British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 1, Prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

60% 63% 15% 8% 23% 29% Ainsworth’s Attachment Classifications versus
Thomas & Chess’s Temperament Profiles Percent of One Year Olds Temperament Profile Percent of Infants Attachment Classification Easy Secure 60% 63% Difficult Resistant 15% 8% Slow to Warm Up 23% Avoidant 29% Data drawn from a similar chart created by faculty at the University of Western Ontario for undergraduate students taking course 240 B . No specific faculty author is listed. Retrieved at

Parenting Styles ─ Baumrind
Authoritarian Child is told, “Do it because I said so!” A punitive and highly controlling parenting style Only concerned about obedience Authoritative Use firm but fair discipline with an emphasis on communication and high expectations for moral maturity Are less likely to use physical punishment Involve children in decisions and rule-making Permissive Loose and inconsistent structure Children given much freedom in deciding activities, rules, and schedules and must often make decisions they do not feel comfortable making. Source: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, Prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Parent-Child Relationships
Baumrind Parent-Child Relationships Baumrind (1983) states that there are 3 types of parenting: Permissive – set few rules and rarely punish their children. Authoritarian – set strict rules and rely on punishment. Authoritative – warm and loving with firm but fair discipline and much communication about moral maturity Identity Achievement -- According to Erikson, the task of adolescence is to resolve the crisis of identity versus role confusion. Social Relationships -- The adolescent becomes more and more influenced by peer values, especially in regard to styles, sexuality, and drug use. Source: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75, Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

What parenting style is best?
Outcomes associated with different styles Authoritarian Lack of social competence Aggression and a disregard for others’ rights Most social contact confined to deviant peers Externally imposed “heteronomous” morality Authoritative Greater self-reliance and self-confidence More sociable, adventuresome, and respectful of others Permissive Immature, impulsive, unable to take others’ perspective Limitations of research Culturally biased? (most research carried out with white, middle class children and adolescents) Confusion of causality? Kids may elicit parenting styles. Slide prepared by Gordon Vessels in His Sources: Grobman, K.H. (2003). Diana Baumrind's Theory of Parenting Styles: Original Descriptions of the Styles (1967). Retrieved from Original source: Buamrind, Diana (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 75,

ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION of PARENTING STYLES
Accepting Nurturing Responsive Rejecting Unresponsive Emotionally Aloof Demanding Controlling Authoritative Diana Baumrind Authoritarian Rejecting Overly Strict Not Demanding Not Controlling Indulgent Accepting Permissive Neglectful Rejecting Permissive Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005

Development of “Prosocial” Behavior
Pro-social behavior is the aspect of moral conduct that includes socially desirable behaviors such as sharing, helping, and cooperating. Pro-social behavior in infancy: babies cry when they hear the crying of other babies but not when they hear tape-recorded crying ─ suggests at least a primitive level of global empathy Martin Hoffman traced the development of empathy through four stages. Sources: Hoffman, Martin (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University Press; Hoffman, Martin (1977). Moral internalization: current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol. 10, New York: Academic Press; Hoffman, Martin (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.) The Development of Prosocial Behavior. New York: Academic Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

Development of empathy
Empathy involves feeling and understanding another’s emotional state, which goes beyond mere sympathy. Martin Hoffman’s research has yielded the following: emotional contagion of newborns (global empathy) during the second year, babies actively attempt to comfort a person in distress, particularly their moms has been shown in reactions to staged events such as mother’s pretending to hurt an ankle. preschoolers empathize with a wider set of feelings and can empathize with people they have not met including story characters they can only imagine and people they learn about through the media. between 6 and 9 years of age, children begin to empathize with people based on their knowledge of troublesome social-environmental conditions such as being sick, living in poverty, or losing a relative. Sources: Hoffman, Martin (2000). Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice. Cambridge University Press; Hoffman, Martin (1977). Moral internalization: current theory and research. In L. Berkowitz, (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Psychology, Vol. 10, New York: Academic Press; Hoffman, Martin (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: empathy and guilt. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.) The Development of Prosocial Behavior. New York: Academic Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

The Development of Moral Reasoning
Lawrence Kohlberg Explained how children and teens develop a sense of right and wrong (an ethic of justice) Looked at reasoning through dilemmas rather than behavior or moral emotion Examined the nature and progression of moral reasoning or judgment through several stages. He proposed 3 Levels of Moral Reasoning: Preconventional Punishment orientation (stage 1) Reward orientation (stage 2) Conventional Good boy/good girl orientation (stage 3) Respect for authority orientation (stage 4) Postconventional Social contract orientation (stage 5) Individual principles/conscience orientation (stage 6) Lawrence Kohlberg devised a stage theory of moral development based on subjects’ responses to presented moral dilemmas. Kohlberg was interested in a person’s reasoning, not necessarily their answer. He theorized that people progress through a series of three levels of moral development. each stage represents a different way of thinking about right and wrong. These stages are further elaborated in a subsequent slide. Kohlberg, Lawrence (Ed.) (1983). The Psychology of Moral Development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels 2005.

KOHLBERG'S BEHAVIORAL-SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY
View of "Right" Primary Levels Motivation Perspective Age/Grade Punishment Avoiding Preschool Early Childhood Egocentric That Which Gains Approval From Others Pre-Conventional (self-serving) Pleasure/ Reward Seeking Grades K-2 Middle Childhood Individualistic Acceptance/ Approval Seeking Grades 3-5 Late Childhood Interpersonal Conventional (other- serving) Rule Following/ Status Seeking Grades 6-8 Early Adolescence Organizational That Which Adheres to Rules or Principles Law Abiding/ Rights Respecting Grades 9-12 Late Adolescence Post-Conventional (principle-serving) Societal I describe Kohlberg’s theory as a behavioral-social-cognitive theory of moral development. There is no affective component other than a behavioral conception of motivation. Nevertheless, it legitimately tracks children’s widening view of the world and their changing ideas about what is just. The broadening view of the world is shown in column four under the word perspective. Children begin with an egocentric perspective and then move through individualistic and interpersonal perspectives as children. Organizational and societal perspectives are assumed by adolescents, and, some adults move into a broader universal perspective. You can see that in column one, we have the Kohlbergian version of moving from heteronomy, or externally imposed goodness, to moral autonomy where right means adhering to rules and principles. Unlike modern affective moral developmentalists and Piaget, the notion of internalization or moral standards is rather obscure in this theory. It is not clearly implied until the post-conventional level of moral reasoning where moral judgment is “principle serving” rather than “other serving” or “self-serving.” In the middle column under motivation, you can see the movement from a strictly behavioral explanation of moral judgment, which is not moral judgment at all, to a social-behavioral or social-learning explanation, to what can perhaps be described as a cognitive explanation that implies internalization and truly autonomous moral reasoning. There are clear parallels in the works of Aristotle and Havighurst. Aristotle referred to an ethics of fear, shame, and wisdom, in that order; Havighurst differentiated between an authoritarian conscience and a rational conscience. Similarities between the models of Piaget and Kohlberg have been overstated in my opinion, and the notion that Kohlberg added to and extended Piaget’s theoretical ideas is groundless. Piaget’s theory of moral development is more complex than Kohlberg’s and at least touches on moral affect. He spoke of sympathetic tendencies and will as a constructed set of values to which a person adheres. Justice Seeking/ Conscience Driven Universal Adulthood Developed by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

Moral Development and Conceptions of Fairness: Damon
Studied 4 through 12 year old children’s ideas about fairness (positive justice), and how they thought rewards and resources should be divided-up or distributed. A sample story: A classroom of children spent a day drawing pictures. Some children made a lot of drawings; some made fewer. Some children drew well; others did not. Some children were well-behaved and worked hard; others fooled around. Some children were poor; some were boys; some were girls. The class then sold the drawings at a school fair. How should the money from the sale of the drawings be given to out to the students who painted pictures? Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

In his studies of kids in the USA, Israel, Puerto Rico, and parts of Europe, Damon found that ideas of fairness develop through a sequence of levels: Under age 4, children simply state their desires and give no reason for their choice. Four and five year old kids state their desires but justify their choices on the basis of external factors (e.g. ¨we should get more because we are girls, or we are bigger¨) Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

Five to seven year old children believe that equality is the only fair way to divvy up valued rewards, and they will argue their point. No mitigating circumstances for them For ages 8 and above, ideas of merit and need enter into children’s moral reasoning. They start to take into account all the factors involved in order to ensure a fair outcome in each situations — a case by case decision. Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

Reasoning and Actual Behavior
How does the thinking of young children about fairness correspond to their behavior in the real world? Damon did a study where six-year-old and ten-year-old children were asked to divide candy bars given to their group as ¨payment¨ for making bracelets. Six-year-olds insisted that fairness meant each person should get the same number of candy bars. Older children were better able to adjust the outcome to fit the students’ abilities and the contributions made by each group member. In 50 % of the cases, children’s behavior matched their concept level in the simulated situations. In 10 % of the cases, behavior was on a higher level. In 40 % of the cases, it was on a lower level. Real candy made a real difference. Sources: Damon, William (1977). The Social World of the Child. San Francisco: Josse-Bass; Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development: Infancy Through Adolescence. New York: W.W. Norton; Damon W. (1988). The Moral Child. New York: The Free Press. Slide arranged by Gordon Vessels, 2005.

Affective Developmentalists
Grade Clusters Shown Below Erikson Havighurst Knowles Hoffman Kagan Hay Havighurst Trust, Openness, Hope Infants Global Empathy Naturally & Non-Selectively Prosocial Autonomy (Independence), Will Toddlers Affective Empathy Guilt for Uncontrolled Aggression Shame & Guilt Dawn of Conscience Initiative, Imagining, Purpose Preschool Early Elementary Authoritarian Conscience Conscience Inner Moral Guide Perspective Taking or the Cognitive Component of Empathy; Guilt for Irresponsibility Late Elementary So let’s examine some of what do we know about child development? In this slide I have aligned, by grade clusters, the findings and theoretical propositions of Erikson, Knowles, Havighurst, Hoffman, Kagan, and Hay. They are all affective developmentalists. Erikson’s work, like Piaget’s, has withstood the test of time. In a little known article, he looked at developmental crises in terms of virtues. In column one of this chart, I have combined his propositions regarding developmental crises with the related work of Knowles and Havighurst. Column two combines the propositions of Kagan and Hoffman who are still adding to our knowledge today. Within the last fifteen years, these two psychologists have greatly expanded what we know about affective moral development. They agree that human beings are wired for empathy and that affective empathy and related emotions including sympathy and guilt are evident at the preschool level. Hay and Kagan do an excellent job of differentiating various moral emotions such as shame, guilt, and anxiety. Hoffman has stressed that if the inborn capacity for affective empathy is used effectively in discipline encounters, we can promote in children the internalization of moral standards, which implies both knowledge and the necessary motivation to do what is right. Note that the formation of a conscience begins normally at about age six in conjunction with feelings of guilt and the related internalization of the parents’ voice about right and wrong. Perspective taking, which is the cognitive component of empathy, and a more independent rational conscience do not emerge until the late elementary school level at the earliest. It makes sense, I think, that a complete set of moral principles, anxiety caused by not behaving accordingly, and the process of forming an identity emerge together in adolescence at the earliest. Rational Conscience Industry, Competence, Skill Middle School Complete Set of Moral Principles Anxiety Related to Inconsistency Between Beliefs and Actions (exact point of emergence not clear) Identity Formation (Consolidation of Roles, Identifications, and Personal Characteristics) No Information High School Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

Affective Development
Havighurst Erikson Hay Hoffman Kagan Selman / Damon no information Need to become Trusting, open, and Hopeful or will be fearful throughout life Global Empathy discomfort at another's distress no information Natural nonselective prosocial tendency Infants Age 0-1 no information Need to become Independent, and Willful or be self-doubting Self-Regulatory Empathy feelings of concern that limit aggression no information Toddlers Age 2-3 Beginning of moral responsibility; the Dawn of Conscience Need to take Initiative and Imagine or may be cruel and critical throughout life Moral feeling of guilt presumably extant with uncontrolled aggression Emotions of shame and guilt Can’t distinguish their perspective from that of others; know self in terms of unrelated surface characteristics Preschool Early Child- hood 4-5 Early Elementary Middle Childhood Authoritarian Conscience: voice of parent taken in as a moral guide via love & discipline Move from a need for initiative to need for Industry, Skill, and competence Perspective Taking the cognitive component of empathy combines with affective component that is present at birth; guilt and self-scorn related to irresponsibility and over-indulgence are presumably experienced Prosocial behavior becomes more selective and declines Know people have different viewpoints but can take only one at a time and favor their own; understand self in terms of comparisons Better understanding of different viewpoints and know they can have more than one plus mixed feelings; self the same Late Elementary Childhood Rational Conscience: through cooperation with peers and an understanding of rules Need to be Competent or do things well or they will feel inferior and be unable to work well with others Need to form an Identity or consolidate roles, identifications, and characteristics or will be insecure, compulsive, or even deviant; tend to be clannish and preoccupied with how they are perceived by peers. no information Middle School Early Adolescence Complete Set of Moral Principles Moral emotion of Anxiety related to inconsistency between beliefs and actions presumably emerges sometime after late childhood or during adolescence Step outside situation and see as complex; have third-party view of self, others, and relationships; know self in terms of effects on others no information no information High School Late Adolescence Understand self in terms of personal philosophy & plan for the future Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 © Here I’ve included more detail about the same theorists and have added some of what Selman and Damon contributed. We have moved out of a phase during which theories of cognitive development were dominant, and into a phase during which theories of cognitive moral development and theories of affective moral development are being given more or less equal attention, and during which the whole moral person is being reconstructed, to borrow a phrase from Marvin Berkowitz. Havighurst increased our understanding of the early emergence of conscience. Erikson helped us see that social and moral development are intimately tied-to and limited-by the achievement of affective developmental milestones. Kagan and Hoffman carried us beyond what Havighurst knew about the emergence of conscience, and explained that natural affective-empathy serves as a foundation from which moral emotions lead to the internalization of moral standards and carry the child into a mature form of empathy that includes perspective taking, the intellectual counterpart to affective empathy or feeling another’s distress. Hay, Kagan, and Hoffman helped us understand that early forms of moral functioning emerge much earlier than previously thought. Hay in particular explained the movement from nonselective prosocial behavior to much more selective prosocial behavior beginning at age six or seven. The instructional implications here are (a) to protect the child from possible harm from being too nonselectivly prosocial, and (b) to begin teaching at about age seven a sense of social responsibility to care about and help people in need that we don’t know personally. Finally, Selman and Damon have added much to our understanding of children’s perceptions of self and the emergence of the ability to take the perspective of others. The many pieces of the puzzle we now have make it difficult to put them together, but it is important that we do so since a failure to do so means windows of opportunity will be missed. I have made a first attempt at this puzzle construction in my core curriculum.

Juxtaposition of Relevant Developmental Theories Piaget on Cognitive
(part 2 is on the next slide) Piaget on Cognitive Development Piaget on Moral Development Kohlberg on Moral Development (Preconventional 1) ● They display heteronomous or adult-dependent morality. ● They think in absolutes of right and wrong. ● They have an egocentric viewpoint. ● They are good to avoid punishment or gain rewards. ● They view the value of life the way they do the value of objects. ● They can’t decenter or take the perspective of others but are imitative. ● They can sense and perceive but not symbolically manipulate. ● They cannot comprehend classes and subclasses. ● They cannot relate to adults’ abstract reasoning. ● They can’t reflect on or think about their own thinking. ● They assume you know what they know. ● They are subject to the morality of constraint. ● They exhibit social play but do not try to win. ● Justice is viewed as that commanded by authority. ● Casual attitude about rules. ● Authority maintains egocentrism. ● Egocentrism a step between the solitary play of younger children and the social play of children six and older. Preschool Early Childhood Kindergarten Pre-Kindergarten Concrete Operations ● They move from perceptual or preoperational to conceptual or concrete-operational thought, i.e., they begin to solve problems in their heads because they can manipulate objects symbolically. ● They cannot imagine events that are not real events, need real things to think about, and cannot think abstractly. ● They can take the perspective of others. ● They are becoming more and more interested in their peers. ● They willfully engage in social cooperation. (Preconventional 2) ● They see right as that which satisfies their needs. ● They have a concrete, pleasure/ reward-seeking, individualistic perspective. ● Their cooperation is instrumental, and they exchange favors to satisfy needs. ● The value of life is viewed as instrumental to need satisfaction. ● They display instrumental cooperation. ● They are largely subject to the morality of constraint. ● They want to win by age seven but have a vague notion of game rules. ● They view rules as sacred and unchangeable. ● They view justice as that which is commanded by authority. Early Elementary Middle Childhood First and Second Grades ● They are in transition between heteronomy and moral autonomy. ● They come to know codified game rules and show an intense interest in them. ● They continue to view rules as unchangeable. ● They view justice in terms of equality that comes about from solidarity and mutual respect. (Conventional 3) ● They view right as what gains approval. ● They have an interpersonal, Golden Rule, good-child/bad-child perspective. ● They gain approval by being caring and accommodating toward significant others. ● They view the value of life in terms of affectional bonds. Late Elementary Late Childhood Grades Three Through Five Formal Operations ● They move from concrete operational to formal-operational thought, think logically and abstractly, and begin to manipulate symbols in their heads. They can imagine hypothetical as well as real events. ● They can introspect, reflect, and think about their own thinking. ● They can consider many view-points and take the perspective of others fully. ● They are much more self-conscious than they were previously. ● They have principled moral autonomy, morality emerging from cooperation. ● Their rule mastery and codification of game rules, that began at about age ten, continues. ● They view justice as equity,not equality. ● Rules are viewed as a changeable product of mutual consent. (Conventional 4) ● They view right as doing one's duty, showing respect to authority, and maintaining social order. ● They have an organizational-need, societal-need, law-maintaining view. ● They view life as sacred within the context of a scheme or moral rights. Middle School Early Adolescence Grades Six Through Eight This is the first half of a two-page chart that aligns Piaget’s theory of cognitive development with various other cognitive and affective theories of social, emotional, and moral development, including Piaget’s largely cognitive theory of moral development. This first half includes a further breakdown of Kohlberg’s pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional levels of moral reasoning. Kohlberg also included descriptions of the changes in children’s thinking about the value of life. This sequence begins with young children viewing life like other objects and moving on in later childhood to view life as instrumental to need satisfaction. He said that children eventually come to view life in terms of the closeness of relationships, but that it is not until adolescence that life is viewed as sacred and worthy of being protected by a context of moral rights. You can look across the two halves of this chart to see how Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s developmental levels or phases and the ages at which they typically emerge compare with the propositions of Damon, Hoffman, Selman, and. Like Piaget, Damon explained moral development from more than one perspective including changing conceptions of fairness and changing views of authority. Now move on to the second half of this chart where we can examine more closely Damon’s explanation of children’s changing conceptions of fairness.. unexplained (Post-conventional) ● They view right as guarding basic rights and legal contracts, or as meeting mutual obligations in context of societal rights and standards. ● They have a law-creating, moral-legal view that obligates them to honor social commitments. ● Principled moral reasoning. High School Late Adolescence Grades Nine Through Twelve Developed by Gordon Vessels 1998 ©

Juxtaposition of Relevant Developmental Theories Selman & Youniss on
(part 1 is on previous slide) Selman & Youniss on Friendship Development Damon on Moral Development Erikson, Hoffman, & Havighurst on Moral-Affective Development (Level 1) ● Children have an egocentric understanding of friendship that involves sharing toys and enjoyable activities with incidental playmates. They are becoming more selective and selfish with their prosocial behavior. They can’t distinguish between their own perspective and that of others. ● 0-A: (4 years old): They make no attempt to justify choices and feel they should get more because they want more. They distort adult orders to fit their wishes. ● 0-B: (5 years old): They justify choices in a selfish, after-the-fact way and view authority only as a block to satisfying their own desires. (Erikson/Hoffman) ● They must take initiative and will experience much guilt and fail to realize their potential if they fail. ● They are at the “dawn of conscience” but have not internalized adult standards. ● They have affectively empathetic feelings that limit aggression and enable social and moral growth. Preschool Early Childhood Kindergarten Pre-Kindergarten (Egalitarianism) ● 1-A: They view fairness as equality. Authority is confused with the power to enforce. ● 1-B: They view fairness in terms of merit and reciprocal obligation. Fairness takes on value in its own right. Children see obedience as legitimate trade for adult favors and help. (Level 1) ● Friendship is defined by uneven-handed reciprocity that derives from a subjective, unilateral, or one-way social perspective. Friends begin to realize that feelings and intentions and not just actions keep them together. They know others have a different perspective but can focus only on one. (Havighurst/Hoffman) ● They internalize adult standards and the voice of parent(s) as a result of love and empathy-mediating inductions that connect actions with felt affects. (Erikson) ● They must gain a sense of competence and will feel inferior and have relationship problems if they fail. Early Elementary Middle Childhood First and Second Grades (Level 2) ● Friendship is defined by two-way, cooperative, even-handed reciprocity. Fair- weather friendships may not withstand conflicts. They can self reflect and realizethat people have an outer and inner self. They realize that people have varying viewpoints and are awareof their own mixed feelings. (Equity/Benevolence) ● 2-A: They view fairness as a right of all, and they view leaders with knowledge as more legitimate. ● 2-B: They view justice (by age 10) as context dependent and can make reasoned decisions based on claims and conditions, but their perspective is limited to the situation. (Havighurst) ● A rational conscience replaces the authoritarian conscience via peer-group identification, peer cooperation, and an understanding of the function of rules. (Hoffman) ● Feel guilty for violating internalized abstract moral rules and can take the perspective of others. Late Elementary Late Childhood Grades Three Through Five (General) ● Self-understanding is based on social and personality traits rather than the abilities of childhood or the beliefs of late adolescence. ● Will gain ability to view situations that involve disparate claims to justice from a wider perspective than the situation and can apply moral principles. (Havighurst/Hoffman) ● They begin to form a complete set of moral principles that they use to judge self and others. (Erikson) ● They seek to consolidate their roles and identifications into an identity. ● They tend to over-identify with individuals and groups and tend to be clannish and intolerant. ● They are driven by a concern for how they are perceived by their peers. ● The resolution of this crisis allows for growth in terms of moral development and the capacity for sexual intimacy. ● Failure can be due to unresolved earlier crises or the failure to commit to an ideology and way of life. (Level 3) ● Friendship is defined by mutual and exclusive trust, loyalty, and intimacy that involves sharing inner-most feelings with a trusted few. It is built on the ability to take a third-party view of self, others, and relationships, i.e., they can step outside a social situation and view its complexities. Middle School Early Adolescence Grades Six Through Eight This is the first half of a two-page chart that aligns Piaget’s theory of cognitive development with various other cognitive and affective theories of social, emotional, and moral development, including Piaget’s largely cognitive theory of moral development. This first half includes a further breakdown of Kohlberg’s pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional levels of moral reasoning. Kohlberg also included descriptions of the changes in children’s thinking about the value of life. This sequence begins with young children viewing life like other objects and moving on in later childhood to view life as instrumental to need satisfaction. He said that children eventually come to view life in terms of the closeness of relationships, but that it is not until adolescence that life is viewed as sacred and worthy of being protected by a context of moral rights. You can look across the two halves of this chart to see how Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s developmental levels or phases and the ages at which they typically emerge compare with the propositions of Damon, Hoffman, Selman, and. Like Piaget, Damon explained moral development from more than one perspective including changing conceptions of fairness and changing views of authority. Now move on to the second half of this chart where we can examine more closely Damon’s explanation of children’s changing conceptions of fairness.. (Level 4) ● Friendship is defined by autonomous inter dependence whereby friends are close and intimate yet grant eachother the independence to establish other close friendships. Words, glances, and gestures can have deeper shared meanings that are unknown to others. ● Self understanding or self-concept is based on beliefs, philosophies, and thoughts rather than personality qualities as was the case in early adolescence. High School Late Adolescence Grades Nine Through Twelve Developed by Gordon Vessels 1998 ©

Friendship / Self / Perspective Taking
Youniss Children's Friendship Stories Selman Damon self-concept and view of self Friends Are Friendship Is . . . Perspective Taking Ability those who live nearby; those with whom they are playing; those whose toys they want understand self in terms of unrelated surface characteristics cannot distinguish their own perspective from that of others 3-6 6 year old children tell stories about sharing toys and play activities 6 recognize others may have different viewpoints but can consider only one at a time and favor their own; a one-way social perspective subjectivity and uneven-handed reciprocity; know feelings, not just activities, keep them together understand self in terms of comparisons with others, particularly peers 6-8 no stories gathered 8 have a better understanding of peoples’ different view-points and know they can have more than one or mixed feelings; two-way perspective more cooperative, even-handed reciprocity; fair-weather friendships don't withstand conflict same as above 8-10 10 year old children tell stories about playing and sharing play activities 10 can step outside a situation and view its complexities and have a third-party perspective on self, others, and relationships understand self in terms of effects on others of personal characteristics mutual understanding and exclusive trust replaces reciprocal interest; friend-ships withstand conflicts 10-13 13 year old children tell stories about assisting each other 13 autonomous interdepen-dence: close and intimate friends grant each other the right to have other friends understand others in terms of personal philosophy and plans for the future 13-18 18 year old adolescents tell stories about sharing private thoughts and feelings 18 18-25 Some of the most unique and teacher friendly contributions come from psychologists who have looked at how children’s conceptions of friendship, self, and perspective taking change naturally with age. This graphic reflects the natural qualitative changes that occur in social, intellectual, and moral development. These changes place limits on what type of growth is possible. Knowledge of these changes makes the selection of relevant and appropriate strategies for promoting development possible. We can think of these changes as windows of opportunity for learning and for systematically promoting and accelerating social, moral, and intellectual growth. They are also windows of opportunity for ensuring the actual occurrence of growth that is possible and normal at a particular age. You can see here that both Youniss and Selman have studied changes in children’s friendships and conceptions of friendship. I see in this a gradual move toward increasing connectedness, reciprocity, and mutual trust. Selman and Damon have studied the changes that take place with perspective taking and self-concept. You can see that it takes children years to escape their egocentrism and one-way social perspective, and even longer to formulate a self-concept that is free from comparisons with others and concerns about one’s affect on others. It appears likely that the ability to truly and completely take the perspective of others, or to acquire the intellectual component of empathy, depends on the emergence of formal-operational thinking. Children of all ages need help to empathize effectively. This can be by using inductions in discipline encounters with young children, or by helping older children understand the views of others and to be more objective by explaining alternative points of view. The ultimate outcome, of course, is to produce citizens who are affectively and cognitively empathetic, and who can be truly objective when the situation requires. My favorite concept from this chart is unevenhanded reciprocity in friendships, which Selman has observed in 6 to 8 year old children. This means that they get the idea of give-and- take but tend to take more than they give if they can get away with it. Developed by Gordon Vessels 2000 ©

9 Domains of Development

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