1. Outlines: The Modern Revolution, 1300 to the Present

2. 1. Renaissance, Reformation & Islamic Empires I. Renaissance A. Renaissance begins in Italy B. Renaissance spreads north into France, Holland, England C. Important Renaissance people II. Reformation A. Roots and Background Causes B. Major Reformers and Reformation Movements 1. Luther3. Anglicans 2. Calvin4. Anabaptists C. Catholic Responses D. European Wars of Religion III. Muslim Gunpowder Empires A. Ottomans (Turkey) B. Safavids (Persia) C. Mughals (India and Pakistan) D. Timur the Lame

3. 1. Renaissance, Reformation & Islamic Empires 1. Renaissance I.Renaissance begins in Italy A. Competition between rival Italian city-states fueled Renaissance B. Renaissance = Rebirth (term coined by later historians) C. Resurgence of interest in art, learning, ancient Greeks/Romans 1. Humanism – focus on human potential (humanities) II.Renaissance spreads north into France, Holland, England A. Spread north is delayed by Hundred Years’ War, France vs England B. In England, known as Elizabethan Age of Queen Elizabeth I and William Shakespeare III.Important Renaissance people A. Artists: Leonardo da Vinci (Mona Lisa, Last Supper); Michelangelo (David, Pieta, Sistine Chapel, Dome of St. Peter’s Basilica)

4. B. Writers 1. Early writers: Dante (Divine Comedy/Inferno), Petrarch (poet) 2. Machiavelli (The Prince): modeled on ruthless Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI; ends justify means; good rulers should be feared more than loved 3. Erasmus, Thomas More (“Utopia”): Good Catholic humanists who wanted to reform church of corruption 4. Shakespeare: Great English playwright C. Leaders 1. Medici Family: rich banking family in Florence (Lorenzo the Magnificent) 2. Borgia Family: Pope Alexander VI, son Cesare Borgia, daughter Lucrezia Borgia 3. Pope Julius II: “warrior pope” who hired Michelangelo

5. 2. Reformation I.Roots and Background Causes A. Black Death: People lose faith in church B. Church corruption: immoral popes, sale of indulgences (passports to heaven if one paid the church) C. Earlier efforts at reform by Jan Hus of Bohemia (burned at stake); Erasmus; Thomas More; and others II. Major Protestant Reformers and Movements A. Martin Luther: spark that ignites Reformation, 1517 1. Luther is Catholic priest, monk, theology professor in Germany 2. He nails 95 Theses to door of church in Wittenberg, Germany, protesting against church corruption, especially indulgences 3. Church puts Luther on trial, condemns & excommunicates him 4. A German prince protects Luther, hides him in his castle 5. Key beliefs: Bible only source of authority, saved by grace not good works, all people are priests – no need for priests, bishops or a pope; believed in 2 sacraments, baptism and Eucharist, not 7; rejected “transubstantiation” but believed in “real presence” of Jesus in the Eucharist 6. Luther’s religion is known as “Lutheranism”

6. B. John Calvin 1. Next great reformer after Luther – started “Calvinism” 2. Creates a “theocracy” (government run by religion) in Geneva, Switzerland 3. Major belief: predestination (God pre-decides who is saved) 4. Calvinism spreads quickly and takes on different names: Presbyterians in Scotland, led by John Knox; Puritans in England; Huguenots in France C. Church of England (Anglicans, or Episcopalians in U.S. today) 1. King Henry VIII wants a divorce to marry another woman 2. Pope says “no” so he breaks away from Catholic Church 3. Henry beheads Thomas More for opposing this split D. Anabaptists 1. A group of Protestants who believe in adult baptism only 2. Examples: Amish, Mennonites, Quakers, Baptists III. Catholic Responses A. Council of Trent: Meeting of pope, bishops to clean up corruption in Catholic Church, condemn Protestants as heretics B. Jesuits (Society of Jesus): New religious community founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola to combat Protestants by starting schools and sending Catholic missionaries to Asia, Africa & New World C. Inquisition: To condemn Protestants as heretics

7. IV.European Holy Wars A. For next 100 years, Europe fights bloody wars of religion B. Spain leads Catholics using riches from New World; England leads Protestants C. Thirty Years’ War is final (but bloodiest) of the “wars of religion” 1. Started with “Defenestration of Prague” 2. Fought mostly in Germany and continental Europe 3. Ended with Treaty of Westphalia 3. Muslim Empires I. Known as “gunpowder empires” – first to use canons, gunpowder II. Ottoman Empire – Sunni Muslims in Turkey A. Conquer Constantinople & Byzantines, 1453; rename city Istanbul B. Greatest leader: Suleiman the Lawgiver, 1500s C. Used Janissaries: Christian children who are kidnapped, trained as Muslim soldiers to protect the sultan III. Safavid Empire – Shi’ite Muslims in Persia (Iran) A. Chief commodity: Persian rugs B. Great capital city of Istfahan

8. IV. Mughal Empire – Sunni Muslims in Pakistan, India A. Greatest leader: Akbar the Great 1. Practiced religious toleration B. Shah Jahan: built Taj Mahal as monument to deceased wife V. Timer the Lame: Warlord descendent of Genghis Khan who briefly threatened to conquer the 3 Muslim gunpowder empires; extremely violent and brutal, terrorized cities, but died before he could solidify his empire

9. 2. Age of Discovery I.Portugal goes south & east to reach Asia II.Spain goes west to reach Asia III.Treaty of Tordesillas IV.Other Early Explorers V.Other European Nations Go Exploring VI.China, Japan Turn Isolationist VII.Later Explorers (1800s and early 1900s_

10. 2. Age of Discovery I.Portugal goes south & east to reach Asia A. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal starts everything B. Wants to bypass Venice, Istanbul; motives: God, Gold, Glory C. Navigation school: new technology (caravel, astrolabe) D. Bartholomew Diaz: First to round Africa’s Cape of Good Hope E. Vasco da Gama: First to reach India by sailing around Africa F. Portugal creates vast trading empire with Asia (Spice Islands) II.Spain goes west to reach Asia A. Christopher Columbus crosses Atlantic, looking for China, but lands in Caribbean and finds New World B. Spanish conquerors soon defeat Aztecs in Mexico, Incas in Peru 1. Native Americans die from European guns, diseases 2. Spain starts African slave trade to provide cheap labor for its New World plantations and mines A. Triangular Trade, Middle Passage – slave trade route B. Bartolomeo de las Casas: Catholic priest who defends rights of Native Americans and later black African slaves

11. III.Treaty of Tordesillas: Pope divides world with north-south line: Portugal gets everything east, Spain gets everything west IV.Other Explorers A. Cabral: reaches Brazil, claims it for Portugal B. Amerigo Vespucci: The Americas are named for him C. Magellan: He leads first voyage that circumnavigates the globe V.Other Nations begin to explore, too A. England creates 13 Colonies in North America 1. Sir Francis Drake: English pirate who raids Spanish ships 2. Jamestown, Virginia: first permanent British colony B. France explores Canada, Great Lakes, Mississippi River Valley C. Netherlands conquers Portuguese trading empire in Asia 1. Dutch East India Company: First private exploring company, with stockholders; British soon copy this model 2. Dutch also settle in North America: colony of New Amsterdam (later taken over by British, renamed New York)

12. VI. Asia Turns Isolationist A. China 1. Ming Dynasty ends its Age of Exploration under Zheng He, turns inward B. Japan 1. Europeans help Tokugawa Shogun seize power with guns; Japan’s age of samurai warriors ends 2. Later shoguns distrust Westerners, expel them, close Japan to trade with the West 3. U.S. navy commander Matthew Perry sails into Tokyo harbor, 1852; Japan again begins to trade with West VII. Later Explorers A. 1800s: Britain’s Captain Cook discovers Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, Tahiti, and glimpses Antarctica B. 1911: First human reaches South Pole

13. 3. Age of Reason and Revolution (Part 1) I.Europe’s Absolute Monarchs II.The Enlightenment (Age of Reason) A. Important Enlightenment Thinkers and Their Ideas III.Enlightened Monarchs IV.England’s Glorious Revolution V.The American Revolution

14. 3. Age of Reason and Revolution (Part 1) I.Europe’s Absolute Monarchs A. Absolute monarch = total power, belief in “divine right of kings” B. Examples: 1. Spain: Ferdinand & Isabela, Charles V, Phillip II 2. England: Henry VIII, Elizabeth II 3. France: Louis XIV, the sun-king, builder of Palace of Versailles 4. Russia: Peter the Great, builder of St. Petersburg II.The Enlightenment (Age of Reason) A. “Philosophes” in the “salons” (parlors) of France 1. Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot B. England & Scotland 1. John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Adam Smith C. Others: Rousseau, Mary Wollstonecraft, Becarria

15. III. Europe’s Enlightened Monarchs A. Frederick the Great (Prussia) B. Maria Theresa and Joseph II (Austria-Hungary) C. Catherine the Great (Russia) IV. Key Enlightenment Ideas A. Diderot – Encyclopedia B. Voltaire – religious freedom, toleration, rights C. Montesquieu – three branches of government, separation of powers D. Locke – natural rights of life, liberty, property; right to overthrow and unjust government 1. Hobbes: opposed Locke; need for dictatorship (the “Leviathan”); in state of nature, people kill one another E. Rousseau: small government is best; noble savage F. Wollstonecraft: women’s rights G. Becarria: end torture & death penalty; reform criminal justice system I. Adam Smith: capitalism, invisible hand of supply and demand

16. V. England Revolution A. James I (of King James Bible fame) and Charles I – both absolute monarchs B. Civil War C. Commonwealth 1. led by Oliver Cromwell D. Restoration (of Monarchy) 1. King Charles II, James II E. Glorious Revolution (a peaceful coup de’ tat) 1. James II is overthrown peacefully 2. William and Mary become king/queen a. Parliament shares power with monarch (Britain becomes a limited monarchy) b. English Bill of Rights

17. VI. American Revolution A. Britain’s 13 British colonies in America declare their independence 1. “No taxation without representation” 2. Boston Tea Party, 1773 3. Thomas Paine’s tract, “Common Sense” 4. Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776 a. Chief author: Thomas Jefferson B. American Revolution (war of independence) 1. Paul Revere’s famous ride warning of approaching British troops, 1775 2. George Washington leads colonial army 3. France, Prussia help colonial army defeat the British C. New American government: Republic, not a Monarchy, with a Constitution, Bill of Rights, 3 branches with separation of powers and checks-and-balances. Federal system: national and state governments

18. 4. Age of Reason and Revolution (Part 2) I.French Revolution A. Background B. Spark C. Stages:1. Revolt of Third Estate 2. Reign of Terror 3. The Directory (and Napoleon) II. Industrial Revolution A. Starts in England because of its factors of production B. Sparks “revolutions” in transportation; communication; entertainment/recreation/leisure; and power C. Stages: (1) England; (2) Europe, U.S., Japan; (3) Modern D. Industrial Revolution “Hall of Fame” E. Plusses and Negatives 1. New social classes F. Philosophies: Laissez faire capitalism, paternalism, liberalism & utilitarianism, socialism, Marxist communism, anarchy

19. 4. Age of Reason and Revolution (Part 2) I.French Revolution A. Background 1. Unpopular absolute monarchs, Louis XVI & wife Maria Antoinette (“Madame Deficit”) 2. Huge national debts from American Revolution 3. Widespread hunger, high taxes on poor 4. Enlightenment ideas of equality, liberty B. Spark: Louis XVI convenes Estates-General to request higher taxes to pay his debts 1. Estates-General consists of 3 “estates,” each with 1 vote: Clergy; Nobility; Lower Classes. Clergy and nobility pay almost no taxes

20. C. Stages of French Revolution 1. Revolt of the Third Estate (the poor) a. Tennis Court Oath to form a National Assembly, as a limited monarchy sharing power with king b. “Declaration of the Rights of Man” is written c. People riot 1. Storming of Bastille in Paris – prison torn down 2. “Great Fear” – clergy & nobility attacked, killed 3. Hungry peasant women storm Palace of Versailles, force king & queen to return to Paris 2. Reign of Terror a. Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette try to flee France but are captured, arrested for treason b. Other European monarchs invade France c. Radical “Jacobin Party” led by Robespierre take over government from centrists and conservatives

21. d. Jacobins execute Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette using new invention, guillotine e. Jacobins abolish monarchy, create “republic of virtue” based on “liberty, equality, fraternity” f. Jacobins use draft to create world’s first citizen- army to repel invasion of other European nations g. Jacobins use guillotine to launch bloody Reign of Terror against all enemies of the state, through the Committee of Public Safety 3. The Directory a. Robespierre is beheaded, and Reign of Terror ends b. Conservative government takes over c. Napoleon Bonaparte eventually overthrows this government, making himself “First Consul” and later Emperor

22. II. Industrial Revolution A. Begins in England 1. Why England? a. Factors of Production: Capital, Labor, Land b. Rising populations because of better food production, medicine – but workers need jobs 2. Steps a. Textile industry – cotton gin, factories using water power b. Coal power using James Watt’s steam engine B. Different Technological “Revolutions” 1. Transportation Revolution: Steamships, railroads 2. Communication Revolution: telegraph, telephone, radio, TV 3. Entertainment Revolution: Phonograph, photography, motion pictures 4. Power Revolution: Electricity, light bulbs, new fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas)

23. C. Some of the Pioneers: Ben Franklin, James Watt, Samuel Colt, Samuel Morse, Alexander Graham Bell, Thomas Edison, Marconi, Karl Benz, George Eastman, Wright Brothers D. Different Industrial “Revolutions” 1. First Industrial Revolution, 1760 to 1830: mostly in England 2. Second Industrial Revolution, 1830 to early 1900s a. Spread to mainland Europe, U.S. Japan b. Use of new fossil fuels (oil, natural gas), electricity c. Fewer slums, dirty cities; labor unions, middle class 3. Third Industrial Revolution, 1900s to now: Information Age, Computers, Internet, globalization

24. E. Some of the Early “Negatives” of “Machine in Garden” 1. Urbanization: slums, crowding, pollution, cholera 2. Exploitation of workers, children – low wages, dangerous conditions F. Some of the “positives” – urban conveniences, improved education and health care, middle class, luxuries, leisure G. “Classes” in the Industrial Revolution 1. Capitalists & Middle Classes (bourgeoisie) vs. Workers (proletariat) 2. White collar workers vs. Blue collar workers

25. H. New Industrial Philosophies 1. Laissez Faire Capitalism – supply/demand, invisible hand of marketplace, no government role in economy 2. Paternalism: Condescending care of poor 3. Liberalism and Utilitarianism: Common good, policies that benefit the greatest number of people 4. Socialism: Government control or regulation of some or all services and/or businesses 5. Marxist Communism: Developed by Karl Marx in mid-1800s, urged proletariat to overthrow bourgeoisie and create classless society of radical equality 6. Anarchy: Abolish all government.

26. 5. Age of Empire I.Napoleon unsuccessfully tried to create an Empire in Europe. A. His biggest mistake was trying to invade Russia. His soldiers froze. B. He also was unable to defeat England II.After Napoleon: Reactionism (turning back the clock, restoring Europe’s monarchies) A. Metternich of Austria engineered reactionism at Congress of Vienna, based on balance of power and “concert” of Europe B. Metternich was mostly successful – Europe stayed peaceful for nearly 100 years, until World War I C. A few “hiccups” – 1848, revolutions erupted throughout Europe but most were crushed; Garibaldi in Italy and Bismarck in Prussia led nationalistic movements to create 2 new nations, Italy, Germany; 2 wars – Crimean War (England vs. Russia), Franco-Prussian War III.Europe turns mostly overseas to create its colonies A. Britain creates largest empire in Victorian Age, with India as its jewel colony, dominating China by winning Opium Wars B. Europeans carve up Africa into colonies (see next page) leader is Garibaldi 3. Nationalism leads to Germany unifying into a single nation; its key nationalist leader is Otto von Bismarck of Prussia, advisor to Kaiser Wilhelm I 4. Crimean War (1853-56): Russia vs. England 5. Franco-Prussian War (1870-71): Provoked by Bismarck as a way to unify the German-speaking kingdoms against France, so that they will unite into a single powerful new nation of Germany

27. 5. Age of Empire, continued B. Europeans carve up Africa (Scramble for Africa) 1. David Livingstone, Stanley 2. Belgian Congo of King Leopold 3. Berlin Conference 4. England: Suez Canal (Egypt), South Africa & war with Zulus, Boers IV. In the Americas, revolutions lead to independence from European colonialism A. Haiti – slave revolt, successful independence from France B. South America – Simon Bolivar, St. Martin defeat Spanish C. Mexico – priest leads rebellion against Spain D. Brazil – Portugal gradually gives Brazil its independence peacefully E. United States – tells Europe to stay out of Western Hemisphere (Monroe Doctrine) V. In Asia, Japan copies the West, industrializes and becomes imperialistic

28. 5. Age of Empire I.Napoleon unsuccessfully tries to create an Empire in Europe A. Napoleon makes himself dictator of France 1. Creates Napoleonic (Law) Code, schools (lycees), national bank 2. Sells Louisiana Purchase to US to raise money to finance his wars of empire B. Napoleon takes over most of continental Europe, but makes 3 mistakes: #1: Unable to invade England or starve it thru Continental System embargo #2: Unable to conquer Spain – result is stalemate Peninsular War #3: (Biggest blunder) Invasion of Russia – Napoleon’s troops freeze and starve C. Napoleon surrenders, imprisoned on Island of Elba in Mediterranean D. Napoleon escapes, rules for 100 Days, defeated again at Battle of Waterloo, imprisoned on Island of St. Helena in Atlantic II.After Napoleon: Reactionism (turning back the clock, restoring Europe’s monarchies) A. Metternich of Austria engineers reactionism at Congress of Vienna 1. Based on a “balance of power” & Europe’s monarchs collaborating in “concert of Europe” 2. Metternich’s system keeps peace for 100 years, except for a few small hiccups: 1. 1848: “Revolutions” break out in France and other parts of Europe but are suppressed by the monarchs of Europe 2. Nationalism leads to Italy unifying into a single nation; its key nationalist leader is Garibaldi 3. Nationalism leads to Germany unifying into a single nation; its key nationalist leader is Otto von Bismarck of Prussia, advisor to Kaiser Wilhelm I 4. Crimean War (1853-56): Russia vs. England 5. Franco-Prussian War (1870-71): Provoked by Bismarck as a way to unify the German-speaking kingdoms against France, so that they will unite into a single powerful new nation of Germany

29. III.Europeans create empires overseas using “gunboat diplomacy” A. British Empire is most successful, creating world’s largest empire ever 1. This is the “Victorian Age” of Britain’s Queen Victoria 2. “Sun never sets over British Empire” – Canada to Australia, India to Hong Kong 3. India is crown jewel of British colonies, especially after Sepoy Rebellion is put down 3. Britain dominates China by smuggling opium, fighting “Opium Wars” a. Britain wins Opium Wars, takes over Hong Kong, controls China’s trade b. China experiences internal turmoil: Bloody Taiping Rebellion in 1850-64 in which 20 million Chinese die, and Boxer Rebellion in 1900 – Chinese group known as “boxers” try to expel Westerners from China B. Scramble for Africa 1. Explorers like David Livingstone and H.M. Stanley popularize African exploration 2. New technologies make exploration possible: steam ships, medicines to fight malaria 3. Motives: a. Riches, resources for new Industrial Revolution factories; b. Social Darwinism and racism: survival of fittest, whites are a superior race; c. “white man’s burden” – white Christians must tame and convert Africa’s pagans 4. Berlin Conference, 1884-85: European nations meet, agree peaceably to carve up Africa into colonies 5. Congo: Belgium’s King Leopold brutally mistreats African Congolese out of greed 6. Egypt: Britain “buys” control of Suez Canal 7. South Africa: a. British fight Zulus and Shaka b. British defeat Dutch colonists, known as Boers, in the Boer Wars c. Cecil B. Rhodes dreams of creating a giant British Empire in Africa by connecting Egypt to South Africa via railroad

30. IV. In the Americas, revolutions against European colonialism A. Haiti – successful slave revolt against France, led by Toussaint L’ Ouverture B. South America – Simon Bolivar in north, Jose de San Martin in south defeat Spanish C. Mexico – Catholic priest leads successful revolution against Spanish D. Brazil – peaceful independence granted by King of Portugal to Brazilians E. United States passes “Monroe Doctrine” saying European nations are unwelcome in Western Hemisphere and US will fight to keep Europeans out V.Japan A. US naval commander Matthew Perry ends era of Japanese isolationism B. Japan decides to copy the West to avoid Western domination, as happened in China 1. Japan industrializes and modernizes 2. Japan begins to become imperialistic, creating its own Asian Empire by taking over Korea and parts of China. It eventually will fight the first modern total war against Russia – the Russo-Japanese War, sometimes called “World War Zero” by some historians

31. 6. World War I, Revolution and Nationalism I.World War “Zero” – Russo-Japanese War (1 st modern “total” war) II.World War I A. Background: Entangled Alliances B. Spark: Assassination of Austrian archduke 1. Central Powers (Germany, Ottomans, Austria-Hungary) vs. Allies (England, France, Russia) C. German Schlieffen Plan: Invade, conquer France first, then fight Russia 1. Plan fails in West: France does not fall, bloody trench warfare goes on from 1914 to 1918 2. Plan succeeds in East: Germany defeats Russia, which drops out of war D. Turning Point: U.S. enters war, 1917 1. US joins Allies because of German Zimmerman Telegram to Mexico, German U-boat sinking of Lusitania and US ships that are supplying Britain 2. Fresh American troops reinvigorate Allies; Germany surrenders on 11/11/18 III.Europe After World War I A. Paris Peace Conference / Treaty of Versailles punish, humiliate Germany B. Wilson offers 14-Point Plan for world peace, including League of Nations IV.Russia: Communist Bolsheviks led by Lenin overthrew czar, create USSR V.China: Fall of “Last Emperor,” brief democracy under Sun Yat-sen, then civil war between nationalists (Chiang Kai-shek) and communists (Mao Zedong) VI.Japan: Militaristic Imperialism in Pacific, attack on Korea, China VII.India: Rise of nationalism, Gandhi, push to expel British

32. 7. World War II I.After World War I A. In United States, Roaring ‘20s, then Great Depression, 1929 to 1945 B. Rise of Fascism: Italy (Mussolini), Germany (Hitler), Spain (Franco) II.World War II A. 1930s: German remilitarization, British/French appeasement B. 1939: Blitzkrieg invasion of Poland by Hitler, USSR; WW II begins C. Early Phases 1. Hitler quickly overruns Norway, Denmark, Holland, France 2. Britain must fight Hitler alone 3. Germany’s unsuccessful air war on Britain (Battle of Britain) D. Turning Points 1. 1941: Hitler invades USSR and is defeated 2. 1941: Japan bombs Pearl Harbor, US joins war on side of Allies 3. 1942 to 1945: Manhattan Project - US develops atomic bomb E. End of War 1. Fall of Hitler: D-Day Invasion from West; Soviet invasion from East; Allied invasion from South through Italy 2. Fall of Japan: Battle of Midway; Island Hopping; Liberation of Philippines; atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima, Nagasaki F. The Holocaust

33. 8. The New Globalism I.Immediately After World War II A. Israel becomes a new nation for Jews B. United Nations is formed to replace League of Nations C. U.S. rebuilds war-torn Europe and Japan (Marshal Plan) D. USSR creates Iron Curtain (communist East Europe vs. democratic Western Europe) II.The Cold War A. Two nuclear superpowers, US and USSR B. American policy of containment, Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) C. 1940s: Berlin Airlift D. 1950s: Korean War, Red Scare and McCarthyism E. 1960s: Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam War, Space Race III.End of the Cold War (Mikael Gorbachev, Ronald Reagan, Pope John Paul II) A. Eastern Europe breaks away from Soviet control, fall of Berlin Wall B. USSR disintegrates into separate countries IV.New Global Age (see next page)

34. 8. The New Globalism (continued) IV.New Global Age A. End of Apartheid in South Africa, rise of Nelson Mandela B. Rise of China 1. Mao Zedung’s Great Leap Forward, Cultural Revolution (failures) 2. Mao’s meeting with US President Richard Nixon 3. After Mao: China’s economic rise via embrace of capitalism 4. After Mao: China’s political struggles (communism, censorship, Tiananmen Square Massacre) C. War on Terrorism 1. Sept 11, 2001 – Al Queda attack on World Trade Center (New York) 2. US wars in Afghanistan, Iraq D. New Global Connections and Trades E. New Global Challenges: Global Warming, Nuclear Proliferation, inequalities between rich and poor, etc.