1. Fundamental Principles of Airmanship Learning Outcome 1 FEATURES OF AN AIRFIELD

2. Objectives Understand Airfield Layouts Know how runways are numbered
Know how runways & taxiways are marked – by day and night
Know how approach lights guide an aircraft into land

3. Types of Airfield Grass Airfield Triangular Patterned Runway
Main Instrument Runway
Landing Direction
It is important for aircraft to land into wind (or as close as possible into wind)
to ensure the aircraft touches down and stops within the length of the runway.
If an aircraft lands with a tail wind it will be travelling faster over the ground than
its airspeed and may not be able to stop within the length of the runway.
Types of Airfield
An Airfield is an area (including any buildings and support installations) used for the accommodation, take-off and landing of aircraft whereas an Airport is an airfield with additional facilities for freight and passengers (for example customs, money-changing, immigration, baggage areas and restaurants).
Aircraft manoeuvring areas are parts an airfield which have been specially prepared for the movement of aircraft on the ground (for example runways, taxiways, Aircraft Servicing Platforms (ASP), Operational Readiness Platforms (ORP) and Dispersal Hardstandings). Note that aircraft manoeuvring areas can be anything from quite small level areas of grass to vast areas of asphalt and concrete, with complex patterns of runways and taxiways. Grass airfields are adequate for light aircraft engaged mostly in flying instruction and civil flying club activity, but paved runways and taxiways are needed for heavier, faster aircraft. A triangular pattern of three runways is useful because it allows aircraft to take-off and land as near as possible into wind, but for today’s high performance aircraft the length of the runway has become as important as the wind direction. The present trend is for operations to be confined to one long runway, or at the most two, the longer one being designated the Main Instrument Runway. This will usually be in line with the prevailing wind and will be equipped with full lighting, radio installations and safety equipment.
In summary, airfields fall broadly into three types:
a) The basic grass airfield.
b) The triangular patterned runway.
c) The modern main instrument runway.

4. Wind Speed 20 Knots Airspeed 80 Knots Ground Speed = 60 Knots
Explain the reason for an aircraft taking off into wind:
Lift is generated by airspeed over the wings hence the aircraft will fly at a certain airspeed (not groundspeed).
Taking off into wind increases airspeed… e.g. an aircraft carrier will sail at 40 knots for aircraft launching.
This will be covered in greater detail in Principles of Flight for Leading Cadet.
Speed over ground is not relevant (to flying speed for take off) other than it uses up the available runway!!
Ground Speed = 60 Knots

5. Grass Airfield
Early aircraft were very light and used grass airfields with variable take off direction…easier to take off into wind.
Today grass strips are used for light aircraft operations at civil flying clubs and some AEF and VGS.
Limitations:
Effect of cross wind
Rough terrain / uneven
Maintenance issues

6. Triangular Patterned Airfield
In the 1940s, during second world war, aircraft became heavier and needed hard runways.
Heavier aircraft require more lift and thus a greater runway length.
Triangular patterned runways were developed to give the length required as well as choice of take off/landing direction into wind and to avoid the cross wind issues.
The layout of the airfield makes it more difficult to attack and completely disrupt operations.

7. Types of Airfield What are the advantages and disadvantages of:
Grass airfields?
Advantages:
Cheap to build.
No designated runway - can take-off in any direction.
Disadvantages:
Susceptible to wet weather, aircraft can bog down.
Would not normally support large aircraft.
Triangle pattern airfields?
Advantages:
Longer runway, so heavy/large aircraft can use it.
Has three runway directions, so into wind is no problem.
Aircraft are easier to control on the ground as there are
designated taxiways.
Summarise advantages and disadvantages.
More difficult to attack.
Disadvantages:
More costly to build.
Harder to repair if attacked.

8. Modern Main Instrument Runway
In recent years aircraft have become heavier and require faster take off speeds, thus evolved the one long runway.
This is known as the Main Instrument Runway as it has many landing aids.
Additionally, faster approach speeds mean that cross wind has less effect.

9. Major Airport Logan International Boston, USA.
Major airports may have multiple runways with airliners often taking off and landing simultaneously (on adjacent different runways).
Logan
International
Boston, USA.

10. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold
Airfield Layout: points to cover…
Runways
Runway markings are white (do not confuse with taxiway markings which are yellow). Each runway is marked by two white painted numerals indicating the magnetic headings of the runway direction, taken to the nearest 10°.
For example:
(1) Magnetic heading 238°(M) - runway number 24.
(2) Magnetic heading 058°(M) - runway number 06.
The magnetic heading is taken from the direction of approach. Thus the magnetic heading for one end of the runway is 180° different from the other (as in the above example 238° - 180° = 58°)
The runway threshold is denoted by longitudinal white stripes painted symmetrically about the runway centre-line. Where the landing threshold has to be moved up the runway because of some form of obstruction in the final stages of the approach (e.g. a railway line or public road) four chevrons and a bar are added. By making the pilot land further up the runway, the aircraft will be at a safe height when it crosses the obstruction. The area between a displaced threshold marking and the beginning of the runway is known as the sterile area; note, however, that this area is not necessarily sterile for taxiing aircraft or for aircraft stopping after landing in the opposite direction.
The runway centre is indicated by a broken white line (arrowheads in the sterile area). Where there is little contrast between the runway and the surrounding area, and also on runways more than 45m wide, each side of the runway will be marked with a solid white line.
2. Manoeuvring areas:
Taxiways
Taxiways connect all the various parts of the aircraft manoeuvring area (e.g. Dispersal to runway, ORP to runway etc) and enable aircraft to move about easily. Taxiways are usually constructed in the same way as runways, and are normally a minimum of 15m wide.
Taxiway markings are in yellow, as follows:
a. Centre Line. The centre of a taxiway is indicated by broken yellow lines.
b. Edge Marking. Where there is little contrast between the taxiway and the surrounding area, the edges of the taxiway are marked with dashed yellow lines.
c. Holding Position. At a junction of a taxiway with a runway, taxiing aircraft are required to “hold” (i.e. stop) until it is safe to move onto the runway. The “holding position” is indicated by two yellow lines, one solid and one broken, painted across the taxiway at right angles to its centre line and 70m from the nearest edge of the runway. A holding position sign, displaying the runway number in white on a red background is also placed at this point.
Holding points:
Aircraft Servicing Platforms (ASPs) are large paved areas for the servicing and turn-round of aircraft. They also facilitate the speedy handling of passengers and freight. They are usually rectangular, with wide access tracks, and are normally close to hangars or airport terminal buildings.
Overrun Areas. Where space permits, areas beyond the ends of the runways are provided for accidental or emergency use by aircraft over-running or under-shooting the runway. These “over-run areas” are cleared of obstacles, have a reasonably even surface, and are capable of supporting an over-running aircraft without seriously damaging the undercarriage. Overrun areas can also have barriers consisting of large strong nets made of nylon rope. They can be raised and lowered by the airfield controller by remote control. If a fast jet aircraft experiences a brake failure on landing and overruns, the net will literally “catch” the aircraft, stopping it with minimum risk of damage to the aircraft or injury to the crew.
3. Operational Readiness Platforms (ORPs) & Dispersal Hardstandings – also see following slides
Operational Readiness Platforms (ORPs) are specially-prepared areas (associated with fighter airfields) built alongside the end of a runway. They are used for parking aircraft, either for rapid take-off with minimal warning (“scramble”) or for final flight preparation. To provide the maximum safe use of the space available, the platforms are usually marked with taxiing lines for individual aircraft, with areas set aside for essential ground equipment
Dispersal hardstandings. Some RAF airfields still use widely-dispersed areas, known as “dispersal hardstandings” or “dispersals”, for parking aircraft. The aim is to spread the aircraft around the airfield, to make it more difficult for enemy aircraft to damage or destroy all the parked aircraft during an attack. Some airfields may have hardened aircraft shelters (HAS), which protect the aircrews and groundcrews as well as aircraft. The walls of a HAS are made of very thick reinforced concrete, and it is capable of “stand alone” operations, with its own air supply and other essential services.
4. Barrier and arrestor gear (military airfields)
Some runways are equipped with “arrester gear”, which can bring an aircraft to a stop in a very short distance.
To use this system aircraft must be equipped with a strong hook which is lowered for landing, to engage a cable suspended across the runway.
When the hook engages the cable, the cable is played out, cablebraking occurs to bring the aircraft swiftly to rest. The cable can be braked in a variety of ways: the system in use in the Royal Air Force is the Rotary Hydraulic Arrester Gear (RHAG), which relies on large paddles rotating in liquid for its braking effect.
5. Windsocks
Windsocks are placed on an airfield to provide a quick and easy way of indicating wind direction. They are positioned away from trees and buildings which may cause local wind turbulence.
Any object that might be hit by a taxiing aircraft, or by one landing or taking off, is an obstruction. Obstructions may be permanent (e.g. building housing ILS equipment) or temporary (e.g. a mechanical digger or a group of workmen on the airfield). It is essential that the whereabouts of all obstructions are made known to pilots. Thus, obstructions must be clearly marked both by day and by night. For example, some specialised vehicles e.g. runway control caravans and sweepers used on the airfield are painted with red and white squares and have yellow roofs. Other vehicles regularly using the manoeuvring area are painted yellow all over.
On some airfields however, for operational reasons, “tone down” measures may have been taken and vehicles may not be so distinctively marked. Some vehicles, e.g. Air Traffic Control vehicles and refuellers are equipped with a flashing amber light, while others like ambulances and fire engines, have flashing blue lights.

11. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Usually the longest runaway on the airfield with instrument and radar approaches
available.

12. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold

13. Secondary Runway
A secondary runway will normally be shorter than the Main runway and have
limited approach aids.

14. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold

15. Control Tower
A building centrally located on the airfield with good visibility of the whole airfield
and the airspace around the airfield.
The Control Tower houses various controllers who control all aircraft, vehicular
and pedestrian traffic.
It also houses the communications and radar equipment used by the airfield.

16. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold

17. Aerodrome Identification Symbol
This is a 2 or 3 letter identifier for the airfield which is marked on the ground
in large letters. Each airfield has it’s own identifier.
Aerodrome Identification Beacon
This is a red signal light that flashes vertically the morse code for the aerodrome
identification symbol. Normally only used at night.
Both allow an aircraft flying overhead to identify the airfield.

18. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold

19. Runway Threshold
The area at the beginning of a runway that the pilot of an aircraft aims at
to touch down safely.

20. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold

21. Holding Points
A line across the taxiway, either side of the runway threshold, which aircraft
are not allowed to cross without Air Traffic Control permission.

22. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold

23. Operational Readiness Platform
An area by the runway threshold where Quick Readiness Aircraft (QRA) can
be parked to give the shortest time available from scramble to Take-Off.
ORP’s
RAF Leuchars

24. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold

25. Windsock
A visual aid to pilots to allow them to see what direction the wind is coming
from and to give an idea of the strength of the wind.
When the wind has blown them horizontal, most windsocks indicate that the
wind is 25 knots or greater.

26. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold

27. Barrier
A large wire net that can be raised to arrest the forward motion of an aircraft
that has landed with brake failure.

28. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold

29. Arrestor Gear
This is a heavy duty wire which stretches across the runway and is supported
by rubber doughnut shaped rings which hold the wire clear of the ground.
The ends of the wire are attached to hydraulic pistons which give resistance to
movement if the wire is pulled.
Some fighter aircraft are equipped with an arrestor hook attached to the rear of the
fuselage. In the case of brake failure the hook can be lowered and will collect the
wire of the arrestor and so brake the aircraft to a halt.

30. Modern Main Instrument Runway
Threshold
Airfield Layout: points to cover…
Runways
Runway markings are white (do not confuse with taxi way markings which are yellow). Each runway is marked by two white painted numerals indicating the magnetic headings of the runway direction, taken to the nearest 10° For example:
(1) Magnetic heading 238°(M)-runway number 24.
(2) Magnetic heading 058°(M)-runway number 06.
The magnetic heading is taken from the direction of approach. Thus the magnetic heading for one end of the runway is 180° different from the other (as in the above example 238° - 180° = 58°)
The runway threshold is denoted by longitudinal white stripes painted symmetrically about the runway centre-line. Where the landing threshold has to be moved up the runway because of some form of obstruction in the final stages of the approach (e.g. a railway line or public road) four chevrons and a bar are added. By making the pilot land further up the runway, the aircraft will be at a safe height when it crosses the obstruction. The area between a displaced threshold marking and the beginning of the runway is known as the sterile area; note, however, that this area is not necessarily sterile for taxying aircraft or for aircraft stopping after landing in the opposite direction.
The runway centre is indicated by a broken white line (arrowheads in the sterile area). Where there is little contrast between the runway and the surrounding area, and also on runways more than 45m wide, each side of the runway will be marked with a solid white line.
Manoeuvring areas:
Taxiways
Taxiways connect all the various parts of the aircraft manoeuvring area (e.g. Dispersal to runway, ORP to runway etc) and enable aircraft to move about easily. Taxiways are usually constructed in the same way as runways, and are normally a minimum of 15m wide.
Taxiway markings are in yellow, as follows:
a. Centre Line. The centre of a taxiway is indicated by broken yellow lines.
b. Edge Marking. Where there is little contrast between the taxiway and the surrounding area, the edges of the taxiway are marked with dashed yellow lines.
c. Holding Position. At a junction of a taxyway with a runway, taxying aircraft are required to “hold” (i.e. stop) until it is safe to move onto the runway. The “holding position” is indicated by two yellow lines, one solid and one broken, painted across the taxyway at right angles to its centre line and 70m from the nearest edge of the runway. A holding position sign, displaying the runway number in white on a red background is also placed at this point.
Holding points
ASP
Aircraft Servicing Platforms (ASPs) are large paved areas for the servicing and turn-round of aircraft. They also facilitate the speedy handling of passengers and freight. They are usually rectangular, with wide access tracks, and are normally close to hangars or airport terminal buildings.
Overrun areas
Where space permits, areas beyond the ends of the runways are provided for accidental or emergency use by aircraft over-running or under-shooting the runway. These “over-run areas” are cleared of obstacles, have a reasonably even surface, and are capable of supporting an over-running aircraft without seriously damaging the undercarriage. Over-run areas can also have barriers onsisting of large strong nets made of nylon rope. They can be raised and lowered by the airfield controller by remote control. If a fast jet aircraft experiences a brake failure on landing and overruns, the net will literally “catch” the aircraft, stopping it with minimum risk of damage to the aircraft or injury to the crew.
Operational Readiness Platforms (ORPs) & Dispersal Hardstandings – also see following slides
Operational Readiness Platforms (ORPs) are specially-prepared areas (associated with fighter airfields) built alongside the end of a runway. They are used for parking aircraft, either for rapid take-off with minimal warning (“scramble”) or for final flight preparation. To provide the maximum safe use of the space available, the platforms are usually marked with taxying lines for individual aircraft, with areas set aside for essential ground equipment
Dispersal hardstandings - Some RAF airfields still use widely-dispersed areas, known as “dispersal hardstandings” or “dispersals”, for parking aircraft. The aim is to spread the aircraft around the airfield, to make it more difficult for enemy aircraft to damage or destroy all the parked aircraft during an attack. Some airfields may have hardened aircraft shelters (HAS), which protect the aircrews and groundcrews as well as aircraft. The walls of a HAS are made of very thick reinforced concrete, and it is capable of “stand alone” operations, with its own air supply and other essential services.
Barrier and arrestor gear (military airfields)
Some runways are equipped with “arrester gear”, which can bring an aircraft to a stop in a very short distance.
To use this system aircraft must be equipped with a strong hook which is lowered for landing, to engage a cable suspended across the runway.
When the hook engages the cable, the cable is played out, cablebraking occurs to bring the aircraft swiftly to rest. The cable can be braked in a variety of ways: the system in use in the Royal Air Force is the Rotary Hydraulic Arrester Gear (RHAG), which relies on large paddles rotating in liquid for its braking effect.
Windsocks
Windsocks are placed on an airfield to provide a quick and easy way of indicating wind direction. They are positioned away from trees and buildings which may cause local wind turbulence.
Any object that might be hit by a taxying aircraft, or by one landing or takingoff, is an obstruction. Obstructions may be permanent (e.g. building housing ILS equipment) or temporary (e.g. a mechanical digger or a group of workmen on the airfield). It is essential that the whereabouts of all obstructions are made known to pilots. Thus, obstructions must be clearly marked both by day and by night. For example, some specialised vehicles e.g. runway control caravans and sweepers used on the airfield are painted with red and white squares and have yellow roofs. Other vehicles regularly using the manoeuvring area are painted yellow all over.
On some airfields however, for operational reasons, “tone down” measures may have been taken and vehicles may not be so distinctively marked. Some vehicles, e.g. Air Traffic Control vehicles and refuellers are equipped with a flashing amber light, while others like ambulances and fire engines, have flashing blue lights.

31. Sterile Area
If there is an obstruction near the threshold of a runway which cannot be moved,
such as a railway line, a new threshold is designated further down the runway
which allows a new glidepath to give adequate clearance from the obstruction.
The area between the normal threshold and the displaced threshold is known
as a sterile area and is marked with large white inverted ‘V’s.
Displaced
Threshold
Glidepath To
Displaced Threshold
RUNWAY
Normal
Threshold
Glidepath
Train On
Railway Line
Causing Obstruction
Sterile Area

32. Sterile Area

33. Aircraft are vulnerable to attack if lined up!
Mosquitoes lined up – why ORPs & dispersal areas came into use!

34. Aircraft Dispersal (Battle of Britain 1940)
Sptifire dispersal area – note aircrew ready to scramble

35. Hardened Aircraft Shelter (HAS) 2004
1966 Arab-Israeli war – following lessons learnt about the vulnerability of aircraft in the open, NATO and the Warsaw Pact (WP) countries built Hardened Aircraft Shelters (HAS) throughout Europe.
This a picture of Jaguar in HAS operations.

36. Exterior of Hardened Aircraft Shelter
NATO Hardened Aircraft Shelter – RAF Upper Heyford

37. Modern weapons can penetrate concrete before exploding.
Damaged HAS in Iraq 2003
Modern weapons can penetrate concrete before exploding.
1991 Gulf War – following the introduction of ‘smart’ weapons (combined with air superiority), Laser Guided Bombs (LGB) enabled precise targeting of HAS. Here a picture of USAF F-117 operating post war from former enemy airfield.

38. QRA Take Off Quick Reaction Aircraft scramble.
A Tornado F3 simulates a Quick Reaction Aircraft scramble take off

39. Runways numbered by Magnetic Compass Bearing
Explain compass… link to map reading lessons.
Explanation of magnetic variation.
Early aircraft used a Direct Indicating (DI) compass (similar to that used by hikers) which gave magnetic heading, thus runways were measured in degrees magnetic.
More on this in Air Navigation for Senior Cadet.

40. Runway 22 heading South West
Reciprocal = 180 degrees (opposite direction).
Runway 04 (Reciprocal) heading North East

41. Runways numbered by Magnetic Compass Bearing
Illustrates typical airfield layout
Runways numbered by Magnetic Compass Bearing

42. Runway 22 is between heading 216° and 225 °
Stress 220 degrees magnetic –
Further explanation…runway number can change as magnetic variation changes over the course of many years.
RW 211 degrees true + 7 degrees west variation = 218m thus RW 22
However, RW 211 true + 3 degrees west variation = 214m thus RW 21

43. Air Traffic Control Local ATC controls all movements on the airfield.
ATC tower in prominent position to oversee airfield operations.
More in Vol 2 Airmanship II when a First Class Cadet!

44. ATC control tower and comms mast

45. Runway & Taxiway Markings
Runways marked in white
Taxiways marked in yellow

46. Taxi way Markings - Yellow
Comment on normal taxi to holding point and ATC radio calls and clearances

47. Markings on approach to runway

48. Runway Threshold
Markings on approach to runway.

49. Threshold and Displaced Threshold markings

50. Threshold Markings
Displacement Markings
Sterile Area
Taxiway

51. Any obstacle to flight on an airfield will be marked by a RED light.
Airfield Lighting
Night and low visibility operations airfields are lit to aid aircraft operations.
Airfield Lighting
Royal Air Force airfields used for night flying have a mass of lights designed to assist pilots to taxi aircraft safely, and to take-off and land on the runway in use. Many of these lights will be hooded so that they can only be seen from a certain angle. If you visit an airfield while night flying is in progress you will see a fascinating display of lights in many colours. Mains electricity is generally used to supply power to an airfield but there will generally be an alternative method of supply to cope with power failures.
The main types of lighting are as follows:
a. Airfield Identification Beacon. The airfield identification beacon is in an open space on the airfield and it flashes the airfield identification letters in Morse code using a high-intensity red light. Do we still have these identification beacons??
b. Obstruction Lights. All high buildings, towers, hangars and other high obstructions, both on and in the vicinity of the airfield, are marked by red obstruction lights.
c. Floodlighting. Aircraft servicing platforms are often lit by powerful floodlights set on pylons.
d. Taxiway Lights. Taxiways which are less than 18m wide are marked by blue edge lights along each side. Taxiways which are 18m or more wide are marked only along the centre line, and the lights are green. The airfield controller can switch the lights of different taxiways on or off, according to which are required for use.
e. Holding Position. Holding position signs are illuminated at night.
f. Approach lighting. Approach lighting is installed, usually outside the airfield boundary and often set on poles, to form a special pattern. This pattern helps the pilot to judge the aircraft’s height and to line up with the runway on the approach to land. In addition, these high- intensity white lights are invaluable in conditions of poor visibility by day, as well as at night, in helping the pilot to find the approach path visually, towards the end of a radio or radar-controlled approach.
g. Threshold Lights. The threshold of the runway is marked by a row of green lights across the runway at the touchdown end, plus “wings” of three green lights on each side of the runway. However, where the threshold is displaced up the runway the “wings” are omitted.
h. Runway Lights. Main runways have high-intensity unidirectional edge lights (seen only from the direction of landing), plus some omni-directional edge lights. As omni-directional lights shine in all directions they can be seen from aircraft flying near the airfield, and pilots in the circuit can use them to see the outline of the runway and judge their position relative to it.
Any obstacle to flight on an airfield will be marked by a RED light.

52. White is the runway centreline.
Taxiway Lighting
Green is Taxiway centreline marking.
Blue is Taxiway edge marking, only
positioned on dangerous corners
These green lights indicate
an approaching runway exit.
Orange is runway guard lights, warning
pilots of an approaching runway
Red is the stop bar, which means an
aircraft cannot cross it
White is the runway centreline.

53. Airfield Approach Lights
PAPIs (Red/White)
Threshold (Green)
Low On Glidepath
On Glidepath
High On Glidepath
Approach Lights (White)

54. White Runway lights
Threshold Green Lights
Sterile Area
Red Obstruction Lights

55. Precision Approach Path Indicators (PAPIs)
Threshold Lights
High Visibility “T”
Approach Lights

57. Lining up on Approach

58. DISPLACED THRESHOLD RUNWAY 13 AT OLD HONG KONG
AIRFIELD OF KAI TAK

59. Landing on Runway 15 – Birmingham Airport

60. Landing on Runway 15 – Birmingham Airport

61. Why are taxiway lights and markings so important?

62. Objectives Understand Airfield Layouts Know how runways are numbered
Know how runways & taxiways are marked – by day and night
Know how approach lights guide an aircraft into land

63. Questions?

64. Questions What does “HAS” stand for? Hardened Aircraft Shelter.
What colour are obstruction lights?
Red.
What colour are threshold lights?
Green.
How are taxiways marked in daylight?
Yellow Markings.
What colours are taxiway lights?
Yellow, Green and Blue.
What is used on an airfield to show wind direction?
Windsock.
How are runways numbered?
By Magnetic Heading.
True or False: Pilots will usually choose to take off with the wind behind them.
False.
What is a “Sterile Area”?
An area on the runway that aircraft
cannot land on.
How is a Sterile Area marked?
Inverted white ‘V’s.