1. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Psychology Third Edition Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion

2. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (1 of 2) 9.1Define motivation, and discuss the key elements of the early instinct and drive- reduction approaches to motivation. 9.2Explain the characteristics of the three types of needs. 9.3Identify and explain the key elements of the arousal and incentive approaches to motivation. 9.4Compare and contrast Maslow’s humanistic approach and the self- determination theory. 9.5Define stress and stressors, and describe two methods for coping with stress. Identify the physical and social factors that influence hunger. 9.6Identify factors that contribute to obesity.

3. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (2 of 2) 9.7Explain the motivation for sexual behavior. 9.8Distinguish among the various sexual orientations and identify some potential influences on sexual orientation. 9.9Describe and discuss the three elements of emotion. 9.10Compare and contrast the common-sense, James–Lange, and Cannon–Bard theories of emotion. 9.11Identify the key elements in cognitive arousal theory, the facial feedback hypothesis, and the cognitive-mediational theory of emotion. 9.12Summarize the five steps of the G T D method.

4. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Motivation Learning Objective 9.1: Instinct and Drive-Reduction Approaches to Motivation Motivation: the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met –Extrinsic motivation: a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person –Intrinsic motivation: a person performs an action because the act is fun, challenging, or satisfying in an internal manner

5. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Instinct Approaches to Motivation Learning Objective 9.1: Instinct and Drive-Reduction Approaches to Motivation Instincts: the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals Instinct approach: approach to motivation that assumes people are governed by instincts similar to those of animals

6. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation (1 of 3) Learning Objective 9.1: Instinct and Drive-Reduction Approaches to Motivation Need: the requirement for some material (such as food or water) that is essential to the survival of the organism Drive: a psychological tension and physical arousal; arises when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension

7. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation (2 of 3) Learning Objective 9.1: Instinct and Drive-Reduction Approaches to Motivation Drive-reduction theory: assumes that behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal

8. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation (3 of 3) Learning Objective 9.1: Instinct and Drive-Reduction Approaches to Motivation Primary drives: involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst Acquired (secondary) drives: learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval Homeostasis: the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state

9. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.1: Homeostasis

10. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Three Types of Needs Learning Objective 9.2: Three Types of Needs Need for achievement (n Ach): involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals—not only realistic ones, but also challenging ones Need for affiliation (n Aff): the need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others Need for power (n Pow): the need to have control or influence over others

11. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Arousal Approach to Motivation (1 of 3) Learning Objective 9.3: Arousal and Incentive Approaches to Motivation Stimulus motive: a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity Arousal theory: theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation

12. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Arousal Approach to Motivation (2 of 3) Learning Objective 9.3: Arousal and Incentive Approaches to Motivation Yerkes–Dodson law: a law stating that performance is related to arousal; moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high –This effect varies with the difficulty of the task.  Easy tasks require a high-moderate level.  More difficult tasks require a low-moderate level.

13. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.2: Arousal and Performance

14. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Arousal Approach to Motivation (3 of 3) Learning Objective 9.3: Arousal and Incentive Approaches to Motivation Sensation seeker: one who needs more arousal than the average person

15. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Table 9.1: Sample Items From the Zuckerman- Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire SCALE ITEMSENSATION SEEKING I sometimes do "crazy" things just for fun.High I prefer friends who are excitingly unpredictable. High I am an impulsive person. High Before I begin a complicated job, I make careful plans. Low I usually think about what I am going to do before doing it. Low Source: Adapted from Zuckerman, M. (2002).

16. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Incentive Approaches to Motivation Learning Objective 9.3: Arousal and Incentive Approaches to Motivation Incentives: things that attract or lure people into action Incentive approaches: theories of motivation in which behavior is explained as a response to the external stimulus and its rewarding properties

17. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Learning Objective 9.4: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and the Self-Determination Theory Self-actualization: the point at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential –Seldom reached Peak experiences: times in a person’s life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved

18. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.3: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

19. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Self-Determination Theory of Motivation Learning Objective 9.4: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and the Self-Determination Theory Self-determination theory (S D T): the social context of an action has an effect on the type of motivation existing for the action Intrinsic motivation: type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner

20. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Stress (1 of 2) Learning Objective 11.5: Stress, Stressors, and Coping Stress: physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to events that are appraised as threatening or challenging Stressors: events that cause a stress reaction

21. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Stress (2 of 2) Learning Objective 11.5: Stress, Stressors, and Coping Distress: the effect of unpleasant and undesirable stressors Eustress: the effect of positive events, or the optimal amount of stress that people need to promote health and wellbeing

22. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Causes of Stress Learning Objective 11.5: Stress, Stressors, and Coping Catastrophe: an unpredictable, large-scale event that creates a tremendous need to adapt and adjust as well as overwhelming feelings of threat Hassles: little daily frustrations, delays, irritations, minor disagreements, and similar small aggravations

23. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Everyday Sources of Stress (1 of 2) Learning Objective 11.5: Stress, Stressors, and Coping Pressure: the psychological experience produced by urgent demands or expectations for a person’s behavior that come from an outside source Control: the less control a person has, the greater his or her level of stress

24. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Everyday Sources of Stress (2 of 2) Learning Objective 11.5: Stress, Stressors, and Coping Frustration: the psychological experience produced by the blocking of a desired goal or fulfillment of a perceived need –External –Internal

25. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Conflict (1 of 2) Learning Objective 11.5: Stress, Stressors, and Coping Conflict: psychological experience of being pulled toward or drawn to two or more desires or goals, only one of which may be attained Approach–approach conflict: a person must choose between two desirable goals

26. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Conflict (2 of 2) Learning Objective 11.5: Stress, Stressors, and Coping Avoidance–avoidance conflict: a person must choose between two undesirable goals Approach–avoidance conflict: a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects –Double approach–avoidance conflict: a person must decide between two goals, each possessing both positive and negative aspects

27. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ways to Deal with Stress Learning Objective 11.5: Stress, Stressors, and Coping Coping strategies: actions that people can take to master, tolerate, reduce, or minimize the effects of stressors –Problem-focused coping: one tries to eliminate the source of stress or reduce its impact through direct actions –Emotion-focused coping: one changes the impact of a stressor by changing the emotional reaction to the stressor

28. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Hunger: Bodily Causes Learning Objective 9.6: Bodily Causes of Hunger and Social Factors Influencing Hunger Insulin and glucagon: hormones secreted by the pancreas to control levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the bloodstream –Insulin reduces the level of glucose in the bloodstream. –Glucagon increases the level of glucose in the bloodstream. Leptin: hormone that signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food and reduces the appetite while increasing the feeling of being full

29. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Hunger: Social Causes Learning Objective 9.6: Bodily Causes of Hunger and Social Factors Influencing Hunger Social Cues for When Meals Are To Be Eaten –Cultural customs –Food preferences –Use of food as a comfort device or escape from unpleasantness  Some people may respond to the anticipation of eating by producing an insulin response.

30. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Obesity Learning Objective 9.7: Factors Contributing to Obesity Obesity: the body weight of a person is 20 percent or more over the ideal body weight for that person’s height (actual percents vary across definitions) –Biological causes include heredity, hormones, and slowing metabolism with age. –Overeating is a major factor as food supplies stabilize in developing countries and Western-culture lifestyles are adopted.

31. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.4: Obese Laboratory Rat

32. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Sexual Behavior (1 of 2) Learning Objective 9.8: Motivation for Sexual Behavior The Kinsey Study: 1948 massive survey of sexual behavior –Controversial findings –Believed sexual orientation was on a continuum The Janus Report: 1993 second large-scale study of sexual behaviors

33. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Sexual Behavior (2 of 2) Learning Objective 9.9: Different Sexual Orientations and Influences Sexual orientation: a person’s sexual attraction to and affection for members of either the opposite or the same sex –Heterosexuality: attraction to the opposite sex –Homosexuality: attraction to the same sex –Bisexuality: attraction to both sexes

34. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Development of Sexual Orientation Learning Objective 9.9: Different Sexual Orientations and Influences No specific gene determines orientation; switches called epi-marks control when, where, and how much info in a gene is expressed. Birth order Neurological similarities Twin studies “Feminine” boys

35. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Elements of Emotion (1 of 4) Learning Objective 9.10: Three Elements of Emotion Emotion: the “feeling” aspect of consciousness characterized by: –Certain physical arousal –Certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world –Inner awareness of feelings

36. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Elements of Emotion (2 of 4) Learning Objective 9.10: Three Elements of Emotion Which parts of the brain are involved in various aspects of emotion? –The amygdala:  complex structure with many different nuclei and subdivisions, whose roles have been investigated primarily through studies of fear conditioning  Emotional stimuli travel to the amygdala by both a fast, crude “low road” (subcortical) and a slower but more involved cortical “high road.”

37. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.5: The “Low Road” and “High Road”

38. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Elements of Emotion (3 of 4) Learning Objective 9.10: Three Elements of Emotion Which parts of the brain are involved in various aspects of emotion? –Other subcortical and cortical areas:  hemisphere  frontal lobes  anterior cingulate cortex  lateral orbitofrontal cortex

39. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Elements of Emotion (4 of 4) Learning Objective 9.10: Three Elements of Emotion Facial expressions can vary across different cultures, but many seem to be universal. –Display rules Labeling Emotion –Interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a label

40. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.6: Facial Expressions of Emotion

41. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Common-Sense Theory of Emotion Learning Objective 9.11: Theories of Emotion Common-sense theory of emotion: a stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal

42. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.7: Common Sense Theory of Emotion

43. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved James–Lange Theory of Emotion Learning Objective 9.11: Theories of Emotion James–Lange theory of emotion: a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion

44. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.8: James–Lange Theory of Emotion

45. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotion Learning Objective 9.11: Theories of Emotion Cannon–Bard theory of emotion: the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time

46. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.9: Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotion

47. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion Learning Objective 9.12: Cognitive Arousal Theory, Facial Feedback Hypothesis, and Cognitive-Mediational Theory Cognitive arousal theory: both the physical arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environment must occur before the emotion is experienced

48. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.10: Schachter–Singer Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion

49. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Facial Feedback Hypothesis Learning Objective 9.12: Cognitive Arousal Theory, Facial Feedback Hypothesis, and Cognitive-Mediational Theory Facial feedback hypothesis: facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and intensifies the emotion

50. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.11: Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion

51. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cognitive-Mediational Theory (1 of 2) Learning Objective 9.12: Cognitive Arousal Theory, Facial Feedback Hypothesis, and Cognitive-Mediational Theory Cognitive-mediational theory: a stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response and an emotional reaction

52. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.12: Lazarus's Cognitive-Mediational Theory of Emotion

53. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.13: Comparison of Theories of Emotion

54. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 9.13 : Comparison of Theories of Emotion (Continued)

55. Copyright © 2015, 2012, 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Cognitive-Mediational Theory (2 of 2) Learning Objective 9.13: Five Stages of GTD Method Experiment –A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see whether corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause and effect relationships Operational Definition –Definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured –Definition: aggressive play