1. Language: “A set of sounds, combinations of sounds, and symbols that are used for communication.” By: Scott R.

2. Languages in Culture Languages bind a people to certain culture Language change = change in culture Quebec, Canada – The French speaking feel distant from the English speaking Canada – See themselves as their own state

3. Some Vocabulary Isogloss – The imaginary boundary line between regions of two dialects Mutual Intelligibility – The ability for two languages to understand each other Dialect Chain – A string of many dialects, all slightly varied, that result in two very varied languages Standard Language – A language that is published, widely distributed, and purposefully taught Dialect – A variation of a standard language along regional or ethnic lines

4. Language Classification and Formation A hierarchy of languages exists Indo-European is the most prominent Language family Sound shifts occur as a language diffuses father away from hearth Extinct Languages have formed due to lack of sound shifts Hearths are located through backward reconstruction Language Family Subfamily A Individual Language A Individual Language B Subfamily B Individual Language A

5. Origin of Language Most prominent language family: Proto-Indo- European (PIE for our purposes) Began as a nostratic language: a language that focuses on naming objects Renfrew Hypothesis claims that PIE spread through the Turkey region of the Fertile Crescent Dispersal Theory claims that PIE diffused in all directions from the fertile crescent Conquest Theory claims that PIE spread due to conquerors forcing their languages on others

6. European Languages RomanceGermanicSlavic —French —Romanian —Spanish —Portuguese —The Former Roman Empire ―English ―German ―Danish ―Norwegian ―Swedish ―North and Western Europe ―Russian ―Polish ―Czech ―Slovak ―Ukrainian ―Eastern Europe

7. Sub-Saharan African Languages Niger-Congo Subfamily Oldest languages are Khoisan Nigeria – More than 400 languages – National Language is English

8. Diffusion of Language Lingua Franca Pidgin Language Creole Language Lingua Franca – A language used among speakers of different languages for the purposes of trade and commerce Pidgin Language – Two or more languages come together to form a new language Example: Swahili Creole Language – When a pidgin language becomes the native tongue of a people

9. Languages in States Type of States Monolingual States – Japan – Uruguay – Poland Multilingual States – India – Peru – Canada Vocabulary Official Language – A language that is widespread, used in politics, and taught locally Global Languages – A common language spoken around the world

10. Language’s Presence in Place Toponyms are used to name a place – Post-Colonial – Post revolution – Memorial – Toponyms undergo Commodification Languages are always changing as the people alter it to fit their needs