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Introduction to Psychology

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1 Introduction to Psychology
Learning and Behavior Analysis

2 Learning Learning: the process, based on experience, that results in a relatively consistent change in behavior (or behavior potential). Learning-Performance Distinction: the difference between what has been learned (cognitively) and what is expressed (behaviorally) Some behaviorists (Skinner) only believe learning has occurred when the behavior is observed; while others (Bandura) say that learning can occur even without seeing it.

3 Learning and Stimulus Habituation (boredom): a decrease in behavioral response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly. Used to study how animals and non-verbal humans remember stimuli Typically occurs with neutral or pleasant stimuli Sensitization (on-edge): an increase in responsiveness to a stimulus when it is presented repeatedly. More likely to occur with stimuli that are irritating or painful

4 Behaviorism John Watson
Argued that the study of private experiences (cognition, perceptions, emotions) was NOT scientific Defined the chief goal of psychology was to predict and control [observable] behavior Famous for the “Little Albert” experiment Classical conditioning of fear in an orphan infant 12-infants scenario

5 Behavioral Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Discovered, by accident, by Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that depends on the temporal association between two stimuli 1) The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits an unconditioned response (UR; reflex) 2) The neutral stimulus (NS) is paired simultaneously with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) 3) after successful pairing or acquisition, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, and elicits the same response/reflex (now conditioned response or CR)

6 Behavioral Conditioning

7 Behavioral Conditioning
Stimulus Generalization: the automatic extension of the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus. Little Albert & all the little fuzzy things Stimulus Discrimination: the organism responds different to stimuli that are distinctly different from the conditioned stimulus. Extinction: when the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the conditioned response Can occur when the CR is presented frequently without the original UCS

8 Behavioral Conditioning
Applications of classical conditioning Organisms can’t help it! Classical conditioning happens all the time! Any reflex can be conditioned! Food aversion One of the powerful forms of classical conditioning As few as 1 pairing can result in lifetime behavioral changes Advertising Emotions

9 Classical Conditioning

10 Classical Conditioning

11 Behaviorism B.F. Skinner Founded radical behaviorism Walden II
Not only are mental or internal events not the cause of behavior; rather these “under the skin” events are the result of environmental stimuli (unidirectional) Walden II A novel about a utopian society based on manipulating environmental consequences for all behavior Served as the father of behavior analysis Focus on how environmental stimuli determine behavior (functional analysis)

12 Behavioral Conditioning
The Law of Effect (Thorndike): the ability or power of a stimulus to evoke a behavioral response is dependent on a history of reinforcement Operant Conditioning (Skinner): learning in which the probability of behavior is changed by it’s consequences (reinforcement or punishment) Both rely on the organism first emitting a behavior spontaneously, then receiving the consequences

13 Behavior Analysis Behavior Analysts rely on Functional Analysis to determine the environmental contingencies that are either perpetuating or preventing behaviors The structure of the behavior matters very little; it is the function or contingency of the behavior that matters

14 Behavior Analysis The Three Term Contingency Consists of A-B-C
Antecedent stimulus (Stimulus Control) The opportunity for the behavior needs to be present Behavior Consequence

15 Behavioral Conditioning
Reinforcement: increases probability of the behavior Positive reinforcement: + good (reward) Negative reinforcement: - bad (avoidance) Punishment: decreasing the probability of the behavior Positive punishment: + bad (corporal punishment) Negative reinforcement: - good (removing pleasant) What makes a reinforcer reinforcing? A punishment, punishing?

16 Behavioral Conditioning
What if you don’t want to use punishment? Differential reinforcement Reinforce the absence of the behavior Reinforce a different behavior Reinforce a physically incompatible behavior

17 Behavioral Conditioning
Motivating Operations: The effectiveness of a certain consequence based on the organism’s features at a particular moment Establishing Operations: makes the consequence MORE desirable Hunger Abolishing Operations: makes the consequence LESS desirable Already full

18 Behavioral Conditioning
Operant conditioning is most effective when the consequence immediately follows the behavior Consequences given later may accidentally alter the probability of another behavior that is more proximal to the consequence Dog training Hangover v. Antibuse Verbal humans are able to “understand” delays in consequences – which is sometimes good (biweekly paycheck) or bad (getting arrested for a crime)

19 Shaping Behavior Chaining Successive approximation
Reinforcing small, distinct sequential parts of the behavior until the entire behavior is achieved Teaching a child to brush their teeth Successive approximation The organism’s behavior is reinforced as it becomes closer and closer to the desired behavior Teaching a dog to roll over

20 Behavioral Conditioning
Operant Extinction: when a behavior no longer produces predictable consequences, the behavior will return to the previous level before conditioning Extinction burst Toddler in the grocery store Spontaneous recovery Fading: when the behavior analyst gradually reduces the rate of extrinsic or artificial reinforcement Relies on the environment having a natural, built-in contingency for the behavior

21

22 Behavioral Conditioning
Primary Reinforcers: have reinforcing properties all on their own Typically biologically rooted, such as food or avoidance of pain Secondary (conditioned) Reinforcers: have been paired with a primary reinforcer to elicit the same response Mixes classical and operant conditioning Animal training “clicker” Generalized Reinforcer: have been paired with many primary reinforcers to elicit various responses Token Economy What is an example of a generalized reinforcer? Premack’s Principle: one behavior can be used to reinforce another behavior Homework v. Video Games

23 Schedules of Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a pattern of delivering and withholding consequences of behavior Behaviors given partial reinforcement are much harder to extinguish than those with continuous reinforcement Fixed-Ratio (i.e. every 5 behaviors) Fixed-Interval (i.e. every 5 minutes) Variable-Ratio (i.e. an average of every 10 responses – could be at 5 responses, 7 responses, 15 responses, etc) Variable-Ratio is the hardest to extinguish Variable-Interval (i.e. an average of every 10 minutes, could be at 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, etc)

24 Observational/Social Learning
Albert Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment Simply watching another organism perform a behavior is enough to elicit the behavior Can be with or without vicarious reinforcement or vicaious punishment Influenced by the model’s attributes Authority Similarity Bandura believed that social learning can occur without the learner producing the behavior (Latent Learning)

25 Applications of Behavioral Analysis
Marketing & Advertising Industrial & Organizational Animal training Child-rearing Training individuals with developmental disabilities Treatment of substance abuse Treatment of specific phobias And much more!

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