2. Motivasi : Latar Belakang dan Teori-Teori Chapter 5 Mata kuliah: J0754 - Pengelolaan Organisasi Entrepreneurial Dosen Pembuat: D3122 - Rudy Aryanto Tahun : 2009

3. Learning Objectives –Define motivation in practical terms that would be meaningful to managers in organizations –Compare the content and process explanations and theories of motivation –Describe how equity theory explains employees’ reactions to pay and compensation decisions

4. Learning Objectives –Discuss why individual needs and preferences change over the course of a career –Explain the motivational force for a behavior, action, or task As a function of three distinct perceptions made by an individual

5. Motivation Puzzle Managers must excel at addressing the needs and goals of employees –No one motivational approach works for all Individuals differ in… –Their desired rewards –How they attempt to satisfy those needs –How they view the fairness of rewards –Their view of the work environment

6. Key Employee Differences Veterans (born 1922-45) –Believe in hard work, dedication, sacrifice, and respect for authority –Have a great deal or organizational knowledge and remain influential Boomers (born 1946-64) –Characterized by optimism, teamwork, healthy lifestyles, personal gratification –Will “go the extra mile” to get the job done –Enjoy their careers

7. Key Employee Differences Gen Xers (born 1965-76) –Understands the importance of diversity, work-life balance, self- reliance, fun, and informality –More cynical than other generations –Their “it’s only a job” attitude puts them in direct conflict with Boomers

8. Key Employee Differences Gen Yers (born 1977-97) –Nexters, Internet Gen, or Echo Boomers Workplace preferences –A fair boss –Belief in the company –Workplace safety –Training and learning opportunities –Flexible work schedules –Constructive feedback –Timely and fair reward systems

9. Motivation Theorists have different interpretations and place emphasis on different factors –Motivation is related to behavior and performance –Goal-directedness is involved –It results from events and processes, whether internal or external –Research is still evolving –Many aspects of human motivation remain unexplained

10. Motivation Motivation is the result of forces acting on an employee that initiate and direct behavior

11. Motivation Motivated employees –Look for the best way to do their job –Produce high-quality products or services –Are more likely to be productive –Want to work and become part of the team –Help, support, and encourage coworkers –Are self-confident and decisive

12. Motivation Starting Point Individuals –All have a deficiency or lack something at a particular point in time –Are more susceptible to motivational efforts when in need Deficiencies may be –Physiological –Psychological –Sociological

13. The Motivational Process The Employee I Need deficiencies II Search for ways to satisfy needs III Goal-directed behavior IV Performance (evaluate goals accomplished) V Rewards or punishments VI Employee reassesses need deficiencies

14. Motivation Theories Content Motivation Theories –Focuses on factors within a person that energize, direct, sustain, stop behavior –These factors can only be inferred Process Motivation Theories –Describe, explain, and analyze how behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and stopped

15. Managerial Effectiveness Content theories suggest that managers –Determine what employee needs trigger desired behaviors –Offer meaningful rewards that satisfy those needs –Know when to offer rewards to optimize behavior –Understand that need deficiencies do not repeat in a regular pattern

16. Managerial Effectiveness Process theories suggest that managers understand –The process of motivation –How individuals make choices based on preferences, rewards, and accomplishments

17. Theory Founders Content theory founders –Maslow…need hierarchy –Alderfer…ERG theory –Herzberg…two-factor theory –McClelland…learned needs Process theory founders –Vroom…expectancy of choices –Adams…equity –Skinner…reinforcement –Locke…goal-setting

18. Application of Theories Content theory –Managers must be aware of differences in needs, desires, and goals because each individual is unique Process theory –Managers must understand the process of motivation and how individuals make choices based on performances, rewards, and accomplishments

19. Content Theories of Motivation Human needs, as defined by Maslow’s need hierarchy –Physiological –Safety and security –Belongingness, social, and love –Esteem –Self-actualization

20. Content Theories of Motivation Maslow’s need hierarchy assumes –A person attempts to satisfy basic needs before trying to satisfy upper-level needs –Lower-level needs must be satisfied before a higher-level need begins to control a person’s behavior –A satisfied need ceases to motivate

21. Content Theories of Motivation Alderfer proposes a hierarchy involving three sets of needs –Existence… satisfied by such things as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions –Relatedness… satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships –Growth… satisfied by making creative or productive contributions

22. ERG Theory Relationships Among Frustration, Importance, Satisfaction of Needs Frustration of growth needs Frustration of growth needs Frustration of relatedness needs Frustration of relatedness needs Frustration of existence needs Frustration of existence needs Importance of growth needs Importance of growth needs Importance of relatedness needs Importance of relatedness needs Importance of existence needs Importance of existence needs Satisfaction of growth needs Satisfaction of relatedness needs Satisfaction of existence needs

23. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Extrinsic factors –Pay, status, and working conditions –Known as dissatisfiers or hygiene factors Intrinsic factors –Achievement, increased responsibility, recognition –Known as satisfiers or motivators

24. Traditional View vs. Herzberg I. TRADITIONAL VIEW High job dissatisfactionHigh job satisfaction II. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR VIEW Low job satisfaction High job satisfaction Low job dissatisfaction High job dissatisfaction Motivators Feeling of achievement Meaningful work Opportunity for advancement Increased responsibility Recognition Opportunity for growth Hygienes Pay Status Job security Working conditions Fringe benefits Policies/Procedures Interpersonal relations

25. Learned Needs Theory A person with a strong need will use appropriate behaviors to satisfy the need –Needs are learned from the culture of a society

26. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory Achievement (n Ach) –High n Ach persons prefer moderate goals they think they can achieve Affiliation (n Aff) –High n Aff persons prefer immediate and reliable performance feedback Power (n Pow) –High n Ach persons like to be responsible for solving problems

27. Measuring n Ach Needs Needs are measured with the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) –A person is shown a picture and asked to write a story about it –People tend to write stories that reflect their dominant needs

28. n Ach Needs McClelland encourages managers to –Provide periodic feedback on performance –Point out models of achievement to employees –Work with employees to improve their self-image –Introduce realism into all work-related topics

29. Comparison of Content Theories Maslow’s need hierarchy –Individuals satisfy basic needs before directing behavior toward higher-order needs Alderfer’s ERG theory –Those who fail to satisfy growth needs become frustrated, regress, and refocus attention on lower-order needs

30. Comparison of Content Theories Herzberg’s two-factor theory –Some job features and characteristics result in motivation –Others create a comfortable work environment, but don’t motive McClelland’s learned needs –Needs are learned from the culture –Training and education can enhance and influence a person’s need strength

31. Expectancy Theory A person who is faced with a set of first-level outcomes will select one based on –The strength (valence) of the desire to achieve a second-level state –The perception of the relationship between first- and second-level outcomes

32. Expectancy Theory (Varoom) A process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity –Most behaviors are under a person’s voluntary control and are consequently motivated When faced with a set of first-level outcomes –Employees select outcomes based on how the choice relates to second-level outcomes

33. Expectancy Theory Terminology First- and second-level outcomes –The result of behaviors –Associated with doing the job itself –First-level outcomes include productivity, absenteeism, turnover, quality –Second-level Instrumentality –An individual’s perception that first-level outcomes are associated with second-level outcomes

34. Expectancy Theory Terminology Valence –The strength of a person’s preference for a particular outcome –Applies to first- and second-level outcomes Expectancy –Perceived likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome –Subjective probability

35. Principles of Expectancy Theory V1 = S(V2 x I) –Valence associated with first-level outcomes is the sum of the multiplication of the valences (V2) attached to all second-level outcomes with their respective instrumentalities (I) M = f(V1 x E) –Motivation is a multiplicative function of the valence for each first-level outcome (V1) and the perceived expectancy (E) that a given behavior will be followed by a particular first-level outcome P = f(M x A) –Performance is considered a multiplicative function of motivation (f) and ability

36. Expectancy Theory Example Valences of second- level outcomes (in parentheses) Day off (6) Recognition/compliment from boss (3) Mention of performance in personnel record (1) Day off (6) Recognition/compliment from boss (3) Mention of performance in personnel record (1) Day off (6) Recognition/compliment from boss (3) Mention of performance in personnel record (1) 0.6 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.7 -0.1 0.0 0.2 -0.4 Finishing budget on time (6.9) Finishing budget on required day but after deadline (3.2) Finishing budget on day after deadline (.20) 0.4 0.7 1.0 2.76 2.24.20 Motivation Instrumentalities (how much performance outcome & second-level outcome are associated Performance outcome (valences x instrumentalities) Expectancy (probability of performance given effort)

37. Expectancy Theory Managers should –Focus on employee expectations for success –Actively determine which second-level outcomes are important to employees –Link desired second-level outcomes to the organization’s performance goals

38. Equity Theory Employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar works situations

39. Equity Theory Important terms –Person: the individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived –Comparison other: any individual(s) or group used as a referent regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes –Inputs: the individual characteristics brought by Person to the job –Outcomes: what Person received from the job

40. Equity Theory Compares his/her input/ outcome ratio to reference person’s (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O) and perceives OP ORP IP IRP ( equity ) = (inequity) > or IP: Inputs of the person OP: Outcomes of the person IRP: Inputs of reference person ORP: Outcomes of reference person A person (P) with certain inputs (I) and receiving certain outcomes (O) <

41. Restoring Equity –Change the inputs or outcomes of the reference person –Change your inputs or outcomes –Change the reference person –Change the situation