2. Chapter 5
Motivation

3. Determinants of Job Performance
Willingness to perform
Job performance
Capacity to perform
Opportunity to perform

4. The Starting Point: The Individual (1 of 4)
Most managers must motivate a diverse and unpredictable group of people
The diversity results in different behavioral patterns that are in some manner related to needs and goals

5. The Starting Point: The Individual (2 of 4)
Need – a deficiency or lack of something of value that an individual experiences at a particular point in time
Deficiencies may be:
Physiological (e.g., a need for food)
Psychological (e.g., a need for self-esteem)
Sociological (e.g., a need for social interaction)

6. The Starting Point: The Individual (3 of 4)
When needs are present, the individual will seek to fulfill those needs and may be more susceptible to managers’ motivational efforts
Work-related needs can vary from individual to individual
People seek to reduce need deficiencies
Need deficiencies trigger a search process for ways to reduce the tension caused by the deficiencies

7. The Starting Point: The Individual (4 of 4)
The motivational process is goal-directed
The goals (or outcomes) that an employee seeks are viewed as forces that attract the person
The accomplishment of desirable goals can result in a significant reduction in need deficiencies

8. The Motivational Process: A General Model
Need deficiencies
VI.
II.
Need deficiencies reassessed by the employee
Search for ways to satisfy needs
The Employee V.
III.
Rewards or punishments
Goal-directed behavior
IV.
Performance (evaluation of goals accomplished)

9. Motivation Theories: A Summary Overview
Content Motivation Theories
Theories that focus on factors within a person that:
Energize behavior
Direct behavior
Sustain behavior
Stop behavior
These factors can only be inferred
Process Motivation Theories
Theories that describe and analyze how behavior is:
Energized
Directed
Sustained
Stopped

10. Content Theories of Motivation
Founders of the Theories
Maslow – five-level need hierarchy
Alderfer – three-level hierarchy (ERG)
Herzberg – two major factors (hygienes and motivators)
McClelland – three learned needs acquired from the culture
Managerial Application
Managers need to be aware of differences in needs, desires, and goals because each individual is unique in many ways

11. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (1 of 2)
Maslow defined human needs as:
Physiological: the need for food, drink, shelter, and relief from pain
Safety and security: the need for freedom from threat; the security from threatening events or surroundings
Belongingness, social, and love: the need for friendship, affiliation, interaction, and love

12. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (2 of 2)
Esteem: the need for self-esteem and for respect from others
Self-actualization: the need to fulfill oneself by making maximum use of abilities, skills, and potential

13. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Related to the Job
Starting a successful new business
Developing and mentoring others
Using business skills to start a charity that helps homeless children
SELF-ACTUALIZATION
Winning a coveted award for performance
Receiving a high-level promotion
Earning an outstanding reputation among peers
ESTEEM
Being accepted by personal and professional friends
Working in groups that are compatible
Having supportive supervision
BELONGINGNESS, SOCIAL, AND LOVE
Receiving regular salary increases
Having medical and disability insurance
Working in a hazard free environment
SAFETY AND SECURITY
Receiving a sufficient salary to live on
Having sufficient food and drink available
Working in a comfortable environment
PHYSIOLOGICAL

14. Maslow’s Theory: Key Points
A person attempts to satisfy basic needs before directing behavior toward satisfying upper-level needs
A satisfied need ceases to motivate
Unsatisfied needs can cause frustration, conflict, and stress
People have a need to grow and develop and will strive constantly to move up the hierarchy in terms of need satisfaction

15. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Alderfer proposes a hierarchy involving three sets of needs:
Existence: needs satisfied by such factors as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions
Relatedness: needs satisfied by meaningful social and interpersonal relationships
Growth: needs satisfied by an individual making creative or productive contributions

16. Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Key Points (1 of 2)
In addition to the satisfaction-progression process, a frustration-regression process is also at work
e.g., if a person is continually frustrated in attempts to satisfy growth needs, relatedness needs reemerge as a major motivating force
this causes the individual to redirect efforts toward satisfying a lower-order need category

17. Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Key Points (2 of 2)
Individuals are motivated to engage in behavior to satisfy one of the three sets of needs

18. Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Management Application
If a subordinate’s higher-order needs (e.g., growth) are being blocked, perhaps because of a company policy or lack of resources,
Then it is in the manager’s best interest to attempt to redirect the subordinate’s efforts toward relatedness or existence needs

19. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Extrinsic Conditions: Dissatisfiers or Hygienes
Salary
Job security
Working conditions
Status
Company procedures
Quality of technical supervision
Quality of interpersonal relations among peers, with superiors, and subordinates
Intrinsic Conditions: Satisfiers or Motivators
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Advancement
The work itself
The possibility of growth

20. Traditional versus Herzberg View of Job Satisfaction
I. Traditional Job Satisfaction Theory
High job dissatisfaction
High job satisfaction
II. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
No job
satisfaction
High job
satisfaction
Based on Motivators
Feeling of achievement
Meaningful work
Opportunities for advancement
Increased responsibility
Recognition
Opportunities for growth
No job
dissatisfaction
High job
dissatisfaction
Hygiene Factors
Pay
Status
Job security
Working conditions
Employee benefits
Policies and procedures
Interpersonal relations 9

21. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory: Job Enrichment
The process of building personal achievement, recognition, challenge, responsibility, and growth opportunities into a person’s job
Has the effect of increasing the individual’s motivation by providing him/her with more discretion and accountability when performing challenging work

22. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
McClelland contends that when a need is strong in a person, its effect is to motivate the person to use behavior that leads to its satisfaction.
Achievement
(n Ach)
Affiliation
(n Aff)
Power
(n Pow)

23. McClelland’s Theory: Key Points
Needs are learned through coping with one’s environment
Since needs are learned, behavior which is rewarded tends to recur at a higher frequency
As a result of the learning process, individuals develop unique configurations of needs that affect their behavior and performance

24. A Comparison of the Content Theories
Maslow
(need hierarchy)
Self-actualization
Esteem
Belongingness,
social, and love
Safety and security
Physiological
Herzberg
(two-factor theory)
The work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Achievement
Recognition
Quality of inter-
personal relations
among peers, with
supervisors, with
subordinates
Job security
Working conditions
Salary
Alderfer
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
McClelland
Need for
achievement
power
affiliation
Higher
order
needs
Motivators
Hygiene
conditions
Basic
needs

25. Process Theories of Motivation
Founders of the Theories
Vroom – an expectance theory of choices
Adams – equity theory based on comparisons that individuals make
Locke – goal-setting theory (conscious goals and intentions are the determinants of behavior)
Managerial Application
Managers need to understand the process of motivation and how individuals make choices based on preferences, rewards, and accomplishments

26. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Motivation is a process governing choices among alternate forms of voluntary activity
Most behaviors are considered to be under the voluntary control of the person and consequently are motivated

27. Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (1 of 4)
First-Level Outcomes
First-level outcomes resulting from behavior are those associated with doing the job itself
They include:
productivity
absenteeism
turnover
quality of production

28. Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (2 of 4)
Second-Level Outcomes
Those events (rewards and punishments) that the first-level outcomes are likely to produce, such as:
merit pay increases
group acceptance or rejection
promotion
termination

29. Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (3 of 4)
Instrumentality
The perception by an individual that first-level outcomes (performance) are associated with second-level outcomes (rewards)
Valence
The preferences for outcomes as seen by the individual

30. Expectancy Theory: Key Terms (4 of 4)
The individual’s belief regarding the likelihood or subjective probability that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome
Easily thought of as a probability statement

31. Expectancy Theory Effort Performance First-level outcome
E P EXPECTANCY
E O EXPECTANCY
Perceived probability of successful performance, given effort
Perceived probability of receiving an outcome, given performance
Expectancy Theory
Second-level outcome
First-level outcome
Second-level outcome
Effort
Performance
First-level outcome
Second-level outcome
Second-level outcome
First-level outcome
Second-level outcome
Second-level outcome

32. Equity Theory
Employees compare their efforts and rewards with those of others in similar work situations
Based on the assumption that individuals are motivated by a desire to be equitably (fairly) at work
The individual works in exchange for rewards from the organization

33. Equity Theory: Key Terms
Person – the individual for whom equity or inequity is perceived
Comparison other – any group or persons used by Person as a referent regarding the ratio of inputs and outcomes
Inputs – the individual characteristics brought by Person to the job
Outcomes – what Person received from the job

34. The Equity Theory of Motivation
A person (P) with certain inputs (I) and receiving certain outcomes (O)
Compares his/her input/outcome ratio to reference person’s (RP) inputs (I) and outcomes (O)
OP ORP IP IRP
equity =
and perceives or
OP ORP IP IRP
inequity
< or
OP ORP IP IRP
inequity
>
IP: Inputs of the person
OP: Outcomes of the person
IRP: Inputs of reference person
ORP: Outcomes of reference person 13

35. Change Procedures to Restore Equity
Changing inputs
Changing outcomes
Changing attitudes
Changing the reference person
Changing the inputs or outcomes of the reference person
Leaving the field

36. Organizational Justice
The degree to which individuals feel fairly treated at the workplace
Distributive justice – the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed throughout an organization
Procedural justice – the perceived equity or fairness of the organization’s processes and procedures used to make resource and allocation decisions

37. Procedural Justice: Positive Impact
Procedural justice has been shown to have a positive impact on affective and behavioral reactions:
Organizational commitment
Intent to stay with the organization
Organizational citizenship
Trust in supervisor
Satisfaction with decision outcome
Work effort
Performance

38. Key Steps to Implementing a Commitment-Oriented Management System:
Commit to people-first values
Clarify and communicate your mission
Guarantee organizational justice
Create a sense of community
Support employee development

39. Goal Setting: Key Concepts
The process of establishing goals
Goal
Specific target that a person, team, or group is attempting to accomplish
Goal specificity
Degree of quantitative precision (clarity) of the goal
Goal difficulty
Level of performance required to achieve the goal
Goal intensity
Process of setting the goal or of determining how to reach it
Goal commitment
Amount of effort used to achieve a goal

40. Examples of Goal Setting at Work
Developing a new software program within 4-6 months to detect malicious viruses on the Internet
Landing 5 new customers or increasing sales of existing customers by 10% over the next 12 months
Decreasing waste in the manufacturing process by 20% over the next 3 years

41. Goal Setting Applied to Organizations
Goal Characteristics
Performance
Rewards
Clarity
Meaningful
Challenging
Desired by Organization
Preferred by Individual or Team
Moderators
Ability
Commitment
Feedback

42. Exchange Theory
Suggests that members of an organization engage in reasonably predictable give-and-take relationships (exchanges) with each other
e.g., an employee gives time and effort in exchange for pay
e.g., management provides pleasant working conditions in exchange for employee loyalty

43. Psychological Contract (1 of 2)
An unwritten agreement between the individual and the organization which specifies what each expects to give and receive from the other
These implicit agreements may take precedence over written agreements
May focus on exchanges involving: satisfaction, challenging work, fair treatment, loyalty, and opportunity to be creative

44. Psychological Contract (2 of 2)
Managing the psychological contract is a key aspect of most managers’ jobs
The more attuned the manager is to the needs and expectations of subordinates, the greater the number of matches that are likely to exist and be maintained in the psychological contract
This can positively impact the direction, intensity, and persistence of motivation in the organization

45. Conclusions for Managers (1 of 2)
Managers can influence the motivation state of employees
If performance needs to be improved, managers must intervene and help create an atmosphere that encourages, supports, and sustains improvement
Managers should be sensitive to variations in employees’ needs, abilities, and goals
Managers must also consider differences in preferences (valences) for rewards

46. Conclusions for Managers (2 of 2)
Continual monitoring of needs, abilities, goals, and preferences of employees is each individual manager’s responsibility
It is not just the domain of human resources managers only
Managers need to work on providing employees with jobs that offer task challenge, diversity, and a variety of opportunities for need satisfaction