1. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

2. Population & Sample All research is aimed towards a particular population –The larger group that the results should apply to The people you actually study are called your sample –The sample MUST reflect the larger population!

3. Random Sample Sample should be random! –Best representation –Low bias Both on your part and/or your subject’s part! A sample is random if everyone in your population has an equal chance at being selected How can you ensure random sampling?

4. Observation Methods Experimental Research Experimental Research Experimental Research Experimental Research There are 5 major methods used to collect data in psychological research: Case Studies Case Studies Case Studies Case Studies Surveys Correlational Research Correlational Research Correlational Research Correlational Research Naturalistic Observations Naturalistic Observations Naturalistic Observations Naturalistic Observations

5. Observation Methods Experimental Research Experimental Research Experimental Research Experimental Research Involve the direct manipulation of one factor to better determine its effect Advantages allows cause-effect conclusions control of extraneous variables Disadvantages artificial situations may not represent natural events lack of generalizability

6. Observation Methods Independent Variable: Variable the experimenter is manipulating (has control over) Dependent Variable: Variable the experimenter is measure (no control over) Experimental Research Experimental Research Experimental Research Experimental Research

7. EXAMPLE Dr. Duco wants to examine whether a new drug increases the maze running performance of older rats. Just like aging humans, older rats show signs of poorer memory for new things. Dr. Duco teaches two groups of older rats to find a piece of tasty rat chow in the maze. One group of rats is given the new drug while they are learning the maze. The second group is not given the drug. One week after having learned the maze he retests the rats and records how long it takes them to find the rat chow. Independent Variable? Dependent Variable?

8. A researcher wanted to study the effects of sleep deprivation on physical coordination. The researcher selected 25 year-old male college students and deprived some of the subjects to either 24, 36, or 45 hours of sleep. Independent Variable? Dependent Variable? EXAMPLE

9. Extraneous Variables: any other factor that might affect the dependent variable that the experimenter did not account for. Experimental Research Experimental Research Experimental Research Experimental Research

10. EXAMPLE A researcher wanted to assess whether mood influenced people's memory. The researcher hypothesized that positive moods would lead to greater memory performance than would a negative mood state. On Monday the researcher had 50 subjects learn a list of nonsense syllables and then watch a very humorous comedy film. Their recall of the list of syllables was then assessed. On Tuesday the researcher had a second group of 50 subjects learn the same list of nonsense syllables and then watch an upsetting documentary on World War II. Their recall of the list was then assessed after having watched the film. Extraneous Variables?

11. EXAMPLE A researcher wanted to see whether a new way of teaching English was superior to a more traditional approach. The researcher selected two Thursday night classes at a local community college. In one class the instructor used a traditional method, the second instructor used the newer approach. The researcher then assessed students language ability after they had completed the program. Extraneous Variable?

12. Control Group: Serves as the baseline. Untreated or unexposed to some procedure and then compared with treated subjects in order to validate the results (not manipulated) Experimental Group: contains the treated subjects in the experiment (manipulated) Experimental Research Experimental Research Experimental Research Experimental Research

13. EXAMPLE I believe orbitz gum helps people quit smoking What two groups would I form for my experiment? Independent Variable? Dependent? Extraneous?

14. Observation Methods Naturalistic Observations Naturalistic Observations Naturalistic Observations Naturalistic Observations Involve observing behavior as it unfolds in a natural setting Advantages behaviors are spontaneous/natural inexpensive Disadvantages observer bias & selective attention time consuming Hawthorne effect

15. Observation Methods Case Studies Case Studies Case Studies Case Studies Involve intensive examination of a single person or group Advantages deep understanding of subject allows studies of rare behaviors Disadvantages difficult to generalize— conclusions may only apply to that particular person or group

16. Observation Methods Surveys Involve asking people questions about their beliefs and behaviors Advantages allows study of difficult-to- observe behaviors, thoughts and feelings easy to distribute to large groups Disadvantages people who respond may not be representative (volunteer bias) responses may be biased or untruthful

17. Ways to Observe Change Over Time Longitudinal (p. 309) (p. 309) Longitudinal (p. 309) (p. 309) Observe one group of participants over an extended period of time Advantages enables researchers to see how individuals change over time Disadvantages time-consuming & expensive risk of drop-outs

18. Ways to Observe Change Over Time Cross-Sectional (p. 309) (p. 309) Cross-Sectional (p. 309) (p. 309) Compares people in different age groups all at one time Advantages less time-consuming Disadvantages differences may not be due to age or development, but due to other factors such as era

19. All Methods Work to Help Determine… Correlation Correlation  the extent to which two or more variables are associated with one another. If two variables are highly correlated, it means that in the presence of one variable, there is a high likelihood that the other variable will also be present.

20. Correlation = Causation? So…If two variables are highly correlated can we determine a cause- and-effect relationship between them? Variable A: poor attendance Variable B: poor grades

21. Correlation Variable A could cause variable B. Poor attendance could cause people to miss tests and homework, and so they end up getting bad grades.

22. Correlation Variable B could cause variable A. The frustrations of poor grades might cause people to decide not to go to school.

23. Correlation Or a third variable could cause A and B. A person might have a full-time job that causes them to miss school and not do their homework.

24. Correlation vs. Causation Violence & Ice Cream Sales Or is there a 3 rd Variable?

25. Correlation vs. Causation It’s important to remember that correlation does NOT equal causation! Always question the initial conclusion research might lead you to believe! “Floss more, live longer” “Lack of church attendance common denominator in families with ADHD kids.”

26. Correlation  Causation The only way to determine a cause-and- effect relationship is to carry out a laboratory experiment! The variables are controlled in these experiments