1. Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS
HOLT Psychology
4/6/2017
Chapter 2 PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS
Section 1: Conducting Research
Section 2: Surveys, Samples, and Populations
Section 3: Methods of Observation
Section 4: The Experimental Method
Section 5: Ethical Issues
Chapter 2

2. STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Chapter 2
Section 1: Conducting Research
Question: What steps do scientists follow in conducting scientific research?
STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Form a question (posing a question based on experience, psychological theory or common knowledge)
Form a hypothesis (making an educated guess)
Test the hypothesis (examining the evidence through any of a variety of means)

3. STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH (continued)
Chapter 2
Section 1: Conducting Research
Question: What steps do scientists follow in conducting scientific research?
STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH (continued)
Analyze Results (looking for patterns or relationships in the evidence)
Draw a conclusion (determining whether the findings support the hypothesis and adjusting it if they do not)

4. Question: Why are proper sampling techniques important?
Chapter 2
Section 2: Surveys, Samples, and Populations
Question: Why are proper sampling techniques important?
IMPORTANCE OF PROPER SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Samples must be selected scientifically to ensure that the samples accurately represent the populations they are supposed to represent

5. Not always accurate. Why?
Chapter 2
Surveys
survey – people are asked to respond to a series of questions about a particular subject
two methods:
1) fill out questionnaire or 2) interview
Not always accurate. Why?

6. Target Population – whole group you want to study or describe
Chapter 2
Population & Samples
Target Population – whole group you want to study or describe
Sample – only part of a target population
Select a sample – as similar to target as possible
random – chance from target
E.g. selecting every 10th person from the phone book
stratified- subgroups are represented proportionally in comparison to the population
E.g. 2.5% of British are of Indian origin, so 2.5% of your sample should be of Indian origin… and so on

7. A predisposition to a certain point of view
Chapter 2
Volunteer Bias
A predisposition to a certain point of view
People who volunteer to participate in studies often have a different outlook from people who do not and can skew the results
More willing to disclose personal info.
More spare time

8. METHODS OF OBSERVATION
Chapter 2
Section 3: Methods of Observation
Question: What are the various methods of observation, and how is correlation used in analyzing results?
METHODS OF OBSERVATION
Testing Method – several types of tests measure various elements of human behavior such as abilities, interests, and personality
It is convenient but doesn’t always provide a complete representation of a person’s true abilities or personality.

9. METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)
Chapter 2
Section 3: Methods of Observation
METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)
Longitudinal Method – a group of participants are observed at intervals over an extended period of time – same people/person
The pitfall of this method is that it is time consuming, expensive, risky because participants may not stay available

10. Chapter 2
Cross-Sectional Method – researchers compare the differences and similarities among people in different age groups at a given time
This is a less expensive/time consuming way to study questions that may be studied longitudinally, however, it is less reliable than longitudinal studies.

11. METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)
Chapter 2
METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)
Case-study Method – researchers conduct in-depth investigations of individuals or small groups, providing insight
interview others who know them
observe or speak with person
find out about their backgrounds
PITFALLS – memory lapses, lie to impress, try to fulfill researchers expectations

12. Chapter 2
Section 3: Methods of Observation
Naturalistic-Observation Method – researchers observe the behavior of people or animals in their natural habitats
– psychologists don’t interfere with the organisms they are observing **Jane Goodall**
She is responsible for findings in the science of Evolutionary Psychology
PITFALLS – people may become angry/defensive if they feel they are being watched

13. METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)
Chapter 2
METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)
Laboratory-Observation Method – participants are observed in a laboratory setting, enabling researchers to precisely control certain aspects of the study.
PITFALLS – can’t duplicate real life situations

14. Analyzing Observations
Chapter 2
Section 3: Methods of Observation
Analyzing Observations
CORRELATION
Correlation measures how closely one thing is related to another (not cause & effect)
positive – between IQ and grades / both sets of data are increasing or decreasing / as IQ increases, grades increase OR as IQ decreases, grades decrease
negative – as one set of data decreases, the other increases - between number of hours practicing tennis & dbl faults, as hours of practice increases, the number of dbl faults decrease
no correlation – after plotting there is relationship

15. Question: What are the purposes and elements of experiments?
Chapter 2
Section 4: The Experimental Method
Question: What are the purposes and elements of experiments?
PURPOSES AND ELEMENTS OF EXPERIMENTS
Researchers conduct experiments to learn about cause and effect.
Elements of experiments include independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, and the placebo effect.

16. Chapter 2
QUESTION: Suppose the hypothesis is that warm temperatures cause aggression in humans
A variable is a factor that can change or vary An independent variable is the factor that researchers can manipulate So what in this “question” is the variable?

17. Chapter 2
The dependent variable is a factor that is dependent on something; what is measured. So what is the dependent variable?

18. Controlled experiments – use both control & experimental groups
Chapter 2
Controlled experiments – use both control & experimental groups
The experimental group are the participants in the experiment that receive the treatment What is the treatment? The control group are the participants that do NOT receive any treatment. Who is included in that group?

19. Steps experimenters take to avoid bias.
Chapter 2
Steps experimenters take to avoid bias.
Placebos – administering placebos to a group within the study to eliminate the results being caused by an unknown factor
Single Blind Study – helps to eliminate expectation that the treatment will work
Double Blind Study – helps to keep those who are recording results from being influenced or biased

20. Question: How are ethical issues involved in psychological research?
Chapter 2
Section 5: Ethical Issues
Question: How are ethical issues involved in psychological research?
ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH
Protect study participants from harm
Maintain the scientific integrity of the study
Promote the dignity of the individual
Foster human welfare
Confidentiality
Informed Consent

21. Question: How are research questions formed?
Chapter 2
Question: How are research questions formed?
Sources for Research Questions
Daily Experience
Psychological Theory
Folklore and Common Knowledge