1. Basic Research Methodologies
Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

2. Announcements
Exam 1: Sept 17 (a week from Wednesday)

3. An example Claim: People perform best with 8 hours of sleep a night.
How might we go about trying to test this claim?
How should we test it (what methods)?
What are the things (variables) of interest?
What is the hypothesized relationship between these variables?

4. General research approaches
Descriptive: Describe variables as they exist
Observational
Survey
Case studies
Correlational - measures two (or more) variables in order to describe the relationship between them
Experimental: Systematic manipulation and observation of non-naturally occurring events

5. Observational methods
The researcher observes and systematically records the behavior of individuals
Naturalistic observation
Participant observation
Contrived observation

6. Naturalistic observation
Observation and description of behaviors within a natural setting
It is generally used with naturally occurring and ongoing phenomena with little experimenter intervention

7. Naturalistic Observation
Can be difficult to do well
A lot of work is often needed to develop coding systems of behavioral categories
Need to be careful not to influence the behaviors as a result of being observed

8. Naturalistic Observation
Can be difficult to do well
Good for behaviors that don’t occur (as well) in more controlled settings
Walking example
e.g. Goffman observations of people walking on sidewalk, they make/understand subtle cues to indicate to which side they intend to pass one another to avoid collision.

9. Naturalistic Observation
Can be difficult to do well
Good for behaviors that don’t occur (as well) in more controlled settings
Often a first step in the research project
helps to identify what some of the important variables are
then the next step is to move into more controlled settings for further tests

10. Participant Observation
The researcher engages in the same behaviors as those being observed
May allow observation of behaviors not normally accessible to outside observation
Internal perspective from direct participation
But could lead to loss of objectivity
Potential for contamination by observer

11. Contrived observation
The observer sets up the situation that is observed
Observations of one or more specific variables made in a precisely defined setting
Much less global than naturalistic observations
Often takes less time
However, since it isn’t a natural setting, the behavior may be changed

12. Observational methods
Advantages
may see patterns of behaviors that are very complex and realized on in particular settings
often very useful when little is known about the subject of study
may learn about something that never would have thought of looking at in an experiment

13. Observational methods
Disadvantages
Causality is a problem
Threats to internal validity because of lack of control
Every confound is a threat
Lots of alternative explanations
Directionality of the relationship isn’t known
Sometimes the results are not reproducible

14. Survey methods Widely used methodology Can collect a lot of data
those annoying things in the mail and by phone
US Census
Can collect a lot of data
Lots of participants in a short amount of time
Can collect subjective information
Done correctly, can be a very difficult method
constructing good questions, rating scales, etc.
Doesn’t provide clear cause-effect patterns

15. Case Histories
Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method
Get a very detailed description
Fits well with clinical work
Typically an interesting (and often rare) case
The man who mistook his wife for a hat
NA (fencing accident, amnesia)

16. Case Histories This view has a number of disadvantages
There may be poor generalizabilty
There are typically a number of possible confounds and alternative explanations

17. Correlational Methods
Measure two (or more) variables for each individual to see if the variables are related
Used for:
Predictions
Reliability and Validity
Evaluating theories
Problems: Can’t make casual claims

18. Causal claims We’d like to say: To be able to do this:
variable X causes variable Y
To be able to do this:
The causal variable must come first
There must be co-variation between the two variables
Need to eliminate plausible alternative explanations

19. Causal claims Directionality Problem: Third variable problem:
Airplanes and coffee spills
Happy people sleep well
or is it that sleeping well when you’re happy?
Third variable problem:
Do Storks bring babies?
A study reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings

20. Theory 1: Storks deliver babies

21. Theory 2: underlying third variable

22. The experimental method
Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments
Must have a comparison
At least two groups (often more) that get compared
One groups serves as a control for the other group
Variables
Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated
Dependent variable - the variable that is measured
Control variables - held constant for all participants in the experiment
Experimental control will be discussed in more detail in a later lecture. It includes keeping the value of a variable constant for all conditions as well as allowing the variable to vary randomly (and hopefully equally across the experimental conditions)

23. The experimental method
Advantages
Precise control possible
Precise measurement possible
Theory testing possible
Can make causal claims
The ability to make causal claims comes from the use of control:
Holding variables constant
Selecting the levels of the independent variable
Random assignment to conditions

24. The experimental method
Disadvantages
Artificial situations may restrict generalization to “real world”
Complex behaviors may be difficult to measure
The ability to make causal claims comes from the use of control:
Holding variables constant
Selecting the levels of the independent variable
Random assignment to conditions

25. Next time
Ethics in research
Read chapter 3