1. Basic Research Methodologies Psych 231: Research Methods in Psychology

2. Announcements Exam 1: Sept 22 (a week from Wednesday)

3. Using theories in research Induction – reasoning from the data to the general theory Deduction – reasoning from a general theory to the data

4. The chicken or the egg? Typically good research programs use both Theory Data induction deduction

5. Research Approaches Basic (pure) research - tries to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior Applied research – Theory sometimes takes a backseat. This is research designed to solve a particular problem

6. Research Approaches Think of this is as a continuum rather as two separate categories. Basic researchApplied research Often applied work may bring up some interesting basic theoretical questions, and basic theory often informs applied work.

7. An example Claim: People perform best with 8 hours of sleep a night. How might we go about trying to test this claim? –How should we test it (what methods)? –What are the things (variables) of interest? –What is the hypothesized relationship between these variables?

8. General research approaches Descriptive: –Observational –Survey –Case studies Correlational Experimental

9. Observational methods The researcher observes and systematically records the behavior of individuals –Naturalistic observation –Participant observation –Contrived observation

10. Naturalistic observation Observation and description of behaviors within a natural setting –Can be difficult to do well –Good for behaviors that don’t occur (as well) in more controlled settings

11. Naturalistic Observation Observation and description of behaviors within a natural setting –Can be difficult to do well –Good for behaviors that don’t occur (as well) in more controlled settings –Often a first step in the research project

12. Participant Observation The researcher engages in the same behaviors as those being observed –May allow observation of behaviors not normally accessible to outside observation –Internal perspective from direct participation But could lead to loss of objectivity –Potential for contamination by observer

13. Contrived observation The observer sets up the situation that is observed –Observations of one or more specific variables made in a precisely defined setting –Much less global than naturalistic observations –Often takes less time –However, since it isn’t a natural setting, the behavior may be changed

14. Observational methods Advantages –may see patterns of behaviors that are very complex and realized on in particular settings –often very useful when little is known about the subject of study –may learn about something that never would have thought of looking at in an experiment

15. Observational methods Disadvantages –Causality is a problem –Threats to internal validity because of lack of control Every confound is a threat Lots of alternative explanations –Directionality of the relationship isn’t known –Sometimes the results are not reproducible

16. Survey methods Widely used methodology Can collect a lot of data Done correctly, can be a very difficult method Doesn’t provide clear cause-effect patterns

17. Case Histories Intensive study of a single person, a very traditional method Typically an interesting (and often rare) case This view has a number of disadvantages –There may be poor generalizabilty –There are typically a number of possible confounds and alternative explanations

18. Correlational Methods Measure two (or more) variables for each individual to see if the variables are related Used for: –Predictions –Reliability and Validity –Evaluating theories Problems: Can’t make casual claims

19. Causal claims We’d like to say: –variable X causes variable Y To be able to do this: –The causal variable must come first –There must be co-variation between the two variables –Need to eliminate plausible alternative explanations

20. Causal claims Directionality Problem: –Airplanes and coffee spills –Happy people sleep well or is it that sleeping well when you’re happy? Third variable problem: –Do Storks bring babies? A study reported a strong positive correlation between number of babies and stork sightings

21. Theory 1: Storks deliver babies

22. Theory 2: underlying third variable

23. The experimental method Manipulating and controlling variables in laboratory experiments Must have a comparison –At least two groups (often more) that get compared –One groups serves as a control for the other group Variables –Independent variable - the variable that is manipulated –Dependent variable - the variable that is measured –Control variables - held constant for all participants in the experiment

24. The experimental method Advantages –Precise control possible –Precise measurement possible –Theory testing possible –Can make causal claims

25. The experimental method Disadvantages –Artificial situations may restrict generalization to “real world” –Complex behaviors may be difficult to measure

26. Next time Ethics in research Read chapter 3