1. Application of
Physical Geography

2. Part four: Application of Physical Geography —Method、principles and scheme
Chapter 14 Evaluation and zoning of the Earth’s Surface Environment
Chapter 15 Prediction of the Earth’s Surface Environment
Chapter 16 Planning and Management of the Earth’s Surface
Chapter 17 Adjustment of the Earth’s Surface System

3. Chapter 14 Evaluation and zoning of the Earth’s Surface Environment
Climate classification and evaluation of climate environment
Regionalization and evaluation of biological environment
Evaluation and zoning of topography, landform and geological environment
Distribution and evaluation of water resources
Land classification，land gradation and land evaluation
Integrated physicogeographical regionalization

4. KÖppen climate system and major climate belts and climatic types
A、C、D、E are wet climate，B is dry climate，H is highland climate。Each climate is defined according to assigned values of temperature,precipitation and distribution of nature vegetable,Using f、m、w et al behind the first letter. Af for example shows tropical rainforest climate。Based on climate types, Each vice-climatic type is made off according to variables of temperature，using the third letter a、b、c、d et al. Cfa for example is humid subtropical。
Humid mesothermal
climates
Humid microthermal
Tropical climates
Tropical rainforest climate
Tropical monsoon climate
Tropical savanna climate
Mediterranean climate
Subtropical monsoon
Climatic patterns
polar
dry Climates
highlands
Tundra
Icecap
Steppe
Desert
climate belts
Humid subtropical
Dry winter subtropical
Arid humid climate with no dry season

5. symbol and signification under the Köppen system
First letter
Second letter
Third letter
A Tropical climates
Coolest month above 18 º
f Constantly moist,driest month with at least 6 cm of precipitation m one dry season and excessively wet during rain season
w less rain in winter, much in summer
C Mild humid climates
More than one month above 10ºc
s summer drought
w less rain in winter, much in summer
f sufficient precipitation in all month, driest month with at least 3 cm of precipitation
s mean temperature of the warmest above 22 ºc
b warmest month under 22ºc, four months over 10ºc
c warmest month under 22ºc, one to three months above 10ºc
d coldest month mean below 38ºc
D Snowy-forest climates
More than one month above 10ºc , coldest month below 0º
E polar Warmest month below 10ºc
t warmest month between 10 º and 0 º
f warmest month below 0 º c
B Dry climates Precipitation less than half potential evaporation
s semiarid
w dry
h mean temperature above 18 ºc
k mean temperature under 18 ºc
H Highlan

6. Global six climatic belts（ KÖppen climatic systems ）
Based primarily on temperature and precipitation ,using vegetation patterns as a general indicator, W.Köppen, Germanic climatology established Köppen climatic system.It also dependson experience.However, such a classification system is yet to be development,and now it is widely accepted.
The earth’s climates are viewed under the Köppen system as within global climates of six major climate belts labeled A,B,C,D,E and H as the first letter.

7. Climatic types（considering Desheng Liu）
Wet equatorial climate
Wet-dry tropical climate
Tropical maritime climate
Tropical arid-semiarid climate
Tropical monsoon climate
Subtropical dry climate in summer
Moist subtropical climate
Subtropical monsoon climate
Subtropical continental arid-semiarid climate
Sub-frigid continental climate
Pole long-cold climate
Pole ice-field climate
Highland climate
Temperature maritime climate
Temperature moist continental climate
Temperature monsoon climate
Temperature continental
arid-semiarid climate

8. Impact of climate on human
Direct impact of master meteorological elements on human physiology：oxygen：Human being can suffer from oxygenous pressure reducing 20%. Generally speaking, people will have alpine reaction at an altitude of 2000 m; temperature：Generally human body only stand ±4oC variety inside the body. If temperature was under 32oC ,people would lose consciousness. If temperature was over 41oC circle system of human body is likely to breakdown. Hot-wet synthetic influence : temperature between 20 and 24oC，humidity between 40% and 60% are most comfortable to people。
Indirect impact of master meteorological elements on human physiology （In different climatic areas and different seasons，there were different typical diseases，and incidence of a disease is unlikeness。Incidence of rheumatism and arthritic is four times in cold-humid area than in dry-hot area）
Climate and meteorological disaster（In different climatic areas, there were different climate and meteorological disasters，which had an impact on human life and produce）

9. Sense classification of human towards temperature and humidity
Temperature between 20 and 24oC，humidity between 40% and 60% are most comfortable to people. When environment was torridity and wateriness ，people would feel uncomfortable. index THI denotes combination of temperature and humidity.
sense
Most people feel comfortable
At least half people feel uncomfortable
Nearly all people feel uncomfortable

10. Evaluation index of biological environment
1、biodiversity
2、net primary productivity

11. Biological function in the forming of earth’s surface environment
Changing components of atmosphere and hydrosphere
Attaching to the movement of earth’s chemistry elementary
Biological function in
the forming of earth’s
surface environment
Participating in construct of rock and nonmetallic mineral
Participating in petrous effloresce and edaphic forming

12. Net primary productivity of Global continent （Huggett,1998)
From net primary productivity of Global continent and ocean,we can easily see ， land’s net primary productivity is higher than oceanic， shallow sea’s alongshore higher than widen ocean，forest’s higher than grassland’s，swamp’s higher than river’s and lake’s,grassland’s higher than desert’s ,and so on.
dm2 refers to dry substance

13. Global land community (Mackenzie，1998)
Tundra
Temperature north coniferous forest
Temperature coniferous forest
Temperature deciduous forest
Mediterranean vegetation
Highland vegetation
Tropical deciduous forest
Grassland
Desert
Savanna/ woodland
Tropical rainforest

14. Classified evaluation of biological environment

15. evaluating processes of terrain, relief and geologic environment
Evaluation and regionalization of Topography、relief and geological environment
evaluating processes of terrain, relief and geologic environment
height above sea level：The higher of height above sea level, the littler of biologic production, population and economic consistency.
surface constitute：from the height of surface compositive content of element，evaluating elemental geochemistry environment，elemental geochemical environment carves up good, common and bad.
geological hazards：as the example earthquake, volcano, coast, landslip, and so on，severely threaten human living and procreative conditions。
terrain undulation：the more surface relief is，the more discommodiousness human living is. According surface relief，suitability was divided into：suitability less than 100 m，common between 100 and 500 m，unsuitability between 500 and 1000 m，very unsuitability above 1000 m.
morphologic sections：different sections have different conditions.

16. influencing classification of altitude impacting on human living
From current status，not only productivities，hut also population density，will minish with altitude increasing. So we can say that，under the current conditions of science and technology and economy，to many people，high altitude is not suitability to people’s life and residence. If want to classify altitude, you can reference the classified standard of mountain and knap.
Classification of suitability to people living according to altitude（Wang jian，2000）
classification
amenity
unsuitability to many people
litter suitability
common
suitability
the best
altitude (m)

17. constitution of surface elements and human geochemical environment （ Jian Wang，2000）
There are a lot of elements in the earth’s surface. According to the relationship between elements and human body、biology ，they are separate into necessary elements,unnecessary elements and poisonous elements. Because in different place there are various elements ，elements distribute imbalance in different areas, and impact on people’s health. If evaluating surface substantial composing in some place in regard to advantages or disadvantages，seemliness and unseemliness of human circumstance，you should think of elementary content and advantages and disadvantages.
Content of necessary elements
absorbed by human body
moderate
less or more
content of poisonous elements
absorbed by human of biology
nothing
existence
element geochemical
environment of human
good
normal
bad

18. classification and impact on human life of terrain undulation
Surface undulation have an important effect on human living and production. To most people，life more facilitate in plain than in rugged areas。Using standard margin of altitude，in a certain extent can show the degree of surface undulation，it can be named relief。According to relief，you can evaluate environmental amenity.
Surface relief and suitability of human life（Wang jian，2000）
classification
Surface relief (m)
suitability
amenity
normal
very unsuitability
unsuitability

19. Characters of Chinese landform、relief and geological environment
Three ladders；Chinese terrain is high in the west and low in the east，and lowers along Tibetan plateau .
Three across three vertical and a arc characteristic of mountain system—framework of Chinese surface structure
four plateaus、four basins and three plains
four plateaus：Tibetan plateau、inner Mongulian Plateau、Loess plateau and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau；
four basins：Tarim Basin、Juaggar Basin、Chaidamu basin 、Sichuan basin；
three plains：Northeast plain、the north china plain and the middle and lower Valley of Yangtze River

20. Three ladders
China’s terrain is high in the west but low in the east sloping from Tibetan Plateau toward east. Three ladders are the true portray of China’s terrain. Tibetan Plateau lies on the first ladder which is also the highest ladder, with the average elevation between 4,000 meters and 5,000 meters. The north and east of it are surrounded by a series of basins and plateaus, with the average elevation between 1,000 meters and 2,000 meters. The eastern part of line of Daxing’ anling Mountain-Taihang Mountain-Wushan Mountain-Xuefeng Mountain is the third ladder of China. 500 meters above sea level, it is mainly composed of low mountains, hills and plains. As a result, most of rivers of China flow from west to east, such as Yangtze River、Huanghe River、Pearl River、Huai River、Haihe River and so on.
The first ladder
The second ladder
The third ladder

21. The Characteristics and Spatial Distributions of Water Resource
The characteristic of
complex change
The characteristics
of water resource
The characteristic
of circulate supply
The characteristic of
being used comprehensively
The characteristic
of indispensable
The characteristic
of duality
Spatial distributions of water resource
The total volume of water on the earth is about 1.36×1010 km3. But most of it is ocean water which covers percent of the total and fresh water only accounts for 2.78 percent of the total. Furthermore, ice accounts for percent of fresh water and the volume of river water that can be utilized directly by human beings is 1，250 km3 accounting for percent of the total. As far as fresh water that can be utilized by human beings is concerned, the volume per capita is 5×106 litre which can meet the need of human beings. But the problem is not that there is not enough water but that water resources distribute unevenly. As a result, there is crisis of water in some places but flood in other places. More seriously, in some places, there are duality crises unfortunately.

22. Evaluation on Water Resource
Evaluation on water resource refers to the comprehensive evaluation on the quantity, quality, space-time distribution of water resource in a area. Making a scientific evaluation on the water resource is the precise of exploiting and utilizing water resource reasonably and is also the scientific basis of programming, regulating and protecting water resource.
Source and distribution
Contents of
Evaluation on
water resource
Provision
and supply
Change
Water quality
Principle of taking the quantity
and quality of water resource
into account at the same time
Principles of evaluation on
water resource
Principle of exploiting
and utilizing water
resource synthetically
Principle of investing,
exploiting and regulating
water resource harmonically
Principle of mutual transformation
between surface water, ground
water and atmosphere water

23. Formation of the Hydrosphere
Each kind of water body interrelates with each other through water cycle so as to form a whole hydrosphere. In a broad sense, all the water that is useful for human beings directly or indirectly can be included in water resource. As far as capacity of current technology and economy is concerned, ocean water, groundwater buried deeply and glaciers distributing on the polar, high mountains and plateaus can not be exploited and utilized on a large scale. Therefore, water resource is commonly known as surface freshwater resource that can be utilized directly by human beings and ground freshwater resource buried not deeply. But this volume is less than 0.01 percent of the total water storage of the world.
Total volume
100%
Ocean water
Atmosphere
Water
0.03%
Soil water
Ground water
11.02%
The ratio of fresh water volume to the total
2.78%
Fresh lake
0.33%
Saline lake
0.28%
Glacier
0.003%
Snow and glacier
99.35%
Deep ground water
11.12%
The ratio of surface water
volume to the total
0.643%
Fresh
water
Fresh water

24. Map of Global River Annual Runoff （Jones,1998)

25. The Contrast among Potential Water Supply、 Estimated Population of 2010 and Time of Population Doubling of Each Continent
With the increasing of population, water supply per capita is decreasing. On the other hand ，with the development of economy, water requirements per capita is increasing at the same time. It is estimated that there should be about eighty countries lacking in water in the coming future.
Land area
Asia
Africa
Europe
North
America
South
Global
Australia-
Oceania
Annual average
Runoff
(km3/a)
Region
Time of
population
doubling (a)
Estimated
of 2010(Ma)
The proportion to
global annual
runoff (%)
global population
in 2010(%)

26. Division of Earth’s Surface Runoff Resource in China
The runoff of China is supplied by precipitation. As a result, it distributes corresponding to precipitation. On the basis of runoff quantity, precipitation and evaporation, China was divided into five different areas: areas rich in water, areas with much water, transition areas, areas with little water and areas lacking in water.
Areas rich
in water
Areas with
little water
much water
Transition
area
Areas lacking
Natural
landscape
Runoff
Coefficient
(%)
Desert
Precipitation
(mm)
depth
Land
Evaporation
Names of
runoff area
Semi-desert and prairie
Evergreen and deciduous
Broadleaf forest
Deciduous broadleaf forest
and forest prairie
Tropical rainforest and
Sub-tropical evergreen forest

27. Outlines of Land Classification and Land Evaluation
Land adaptability refers to the land suitable degree to some kind of economic
utility.
Mutisuitability: Lands are suitable for agricultural production, forest production
and pasture production at the same time.
Doblesuitability: Lands are suitable for two types of production mentioned above
at the same time.
Singlesuitability: Lands are suitable for one type of production mentioned
above.
Nosuitability: Lands can not be utilized with current science and technology.
Limitation: It refers to the restraining degree of some adverse factors to land
suitability and productive potential.
Economic benefits: It refers to the available benefits provided by land. It is
one of the main measurements of land quality.
Ecological benefits: It refers to the quality of land ecosystems.

28. The Comparison Among Land Classification Units (Chen Chuan-kang, 1993)
Three levels of classification system
Phase: It is the minimal unit of land classification and also the land region where the comprehensive natural characteristics are most consistent.
Land facet (land unit): Phases combine with each other regularly so as to form the intermediate land classification unit.
District (land system): Land facets combine with each other regularly so as to form the advanced land classification unit.
From phase to land facet and further to district, the inner structures of land become more and more complex, the inner consistency is weaker and weaker but the discrimination gets more and more obvious.
Land
classification
Physiognomy
Climate
Hydrology
Soil
Vegetation
Phase
surface
small climate
Of the same quality
of soil water
Variety
Associations
Land facet
Primary
physiognomy
Combinations of small climate
Of the same drainage condition and diving condition
Combinations of variety
Combinations of association
District
Combinations of Primary
Local climate
Small valley
Various type unit

29. The Relationship Between Individual Unit and Grade
Generally, family, genus and specie can be used as units of land type by virtue of biologic classification. For example, as far as the division of land type in the same level is concerned, the phases with similar property are included into phase specie, the phase species with similar property are included into phase genus and the phase genus with similar property are included into phase family.
Units of physical
regionalization
Units of land
classification
District
Land
facet
Phase
State
Landscape
Specie
Genus
Family
Sequence of characteristic unit
Sequence of individual unit
Of state Of
landscape
district
Of phase
Of land
In a similar way, the land facets with similar property are included into land-facet specie, the land-facet species with similar property are included into land-facet genus and the land-facet genus with similar property are included into land-facet family. According to the same method, district can be divided into district species, district genus and district family.
据伊萨钦科

30. Double-Row Index Grid Method
After classified, the land grade can be noted by the method of sequence. That is to say, all levels of units can be showed directly in sequence of family, genus and species. Generally, family can be noted by Latin numbers, such as Ⅰ,Ⅱ,Ⅲ,Ⅳ,Ⅴ and so on. Genus can be noted by English letters, such as a, b, c, d, e and so on. Species can be noted by Arabian numbers, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on. Finally , three of them are assembled orderly so as to express land grade and their relations with signs, such as Ⅰa1、Ⅱb2、Ⅲc3. At the same time, it also can be expressed by double-row index grid method.
According to Chen Chuan-kang
Characteristics of soil and vegetation
(wet→dry)
Physiognomy site
(high→low)

31. Decreasing productive potentials Decreasing adaptability
Chart of Land Grade
Land grade is the final result of land assessment and also the essential part of land grading. The number of land grade is ascertained according to the complexity of assessment purpose. At present, land grade is classified into eight. From the first to the eighth, land adaptability and productive potentials decreases orderly but numbers of restrictive factors to them are more and more. If the they are in the same level of grade, then land adaptability and productive potentials of them are the same too.
Potential
Grade
Adaptability
Decreasing productive potentials
Decreasing adaptability
Muti-
adaptability
Single-
Double-
Noadaptability
The best
The
better
Good
Suit for
agriculture
and pasture
forest
pasture
none
Common

32. Recurrent-Type Structure (According to Chen Chuan-kang)
Land structure can be classified into two types: recurrent-type structure and repeated-type structure. Recurrent-type structure means that each kind of land type arranges in spatial sequence and combines together to form a certain sequence.
Hillside, seacoast and valley
Lake basin
Recurrent-type structure
(according to Chen Chuan-kang)

33. Repeated-Type Structure (According to Chen Chuan-kang)
Paleo-hammocks on the plain
Gulches on the mesa
Repeated-type structure means that land type does not alternate in spatial sequence but distributes as patches. The typical examples are mesa incised by gulches, paleo-hammocks and grassland in the shallow valley.

34. Comprehensive Physical Regionalization
Physical regionalization refers to research means by which physical regional units are classified and merged gradually according to comparability and difference of physical geographical characteristics in some certain areas and some regional hierarchical system are built based on the subordinations between these regional units.
Principles of regionalization
Methods of regionalization
Principle of the same inducing reasons;
Principle of homologous appearance;
Principle of regional conjugation;
Principle of combining comprehensive
analysis with leading factors;
Principle of combining zonal factors
with unzonal factors.
Methods of geographic relative analysis;
Methods of prevailing symbols;
Methods of from-top-to-bottom;
Methods of from-bottom-to-top;
Methods of overlap of departmantal
Regionalization.

35. Double-row Hierarchical System and the Relationships among Its Units
Nature regions are restricted jointly by laws of zonal distributions and unzonal distributions. Based on this two differential laws, land regionalization was classified into zonal regionalization unit hierarchical system and unzonal one. The both are jointly entitled as double-row hierarchical system of comprehensive physical regionalization unit. As for zonal hierarchical system of regionalization unit, it follows the sequence: natural belt, natural zone, natural sub-zone and natural hypo-zone. As far as unzonal one is concerned, it follows the sequence: big region, natural region, sub-region and small region.
Country
Province
State
Belt
Zone
Sub-zone
Hypo-zone
Big region
Region
Sub-region
Section
Sub-
section
Hypo-
Area

36. Chart of Division of Single-row Hierarchical System (Modified by Chen Chuan-kang)
From the point of some scholars, the differences between natural regions and laws of spatial distributions of regional units are the comprehensive reflections on laws of regional differentiation. As a result, it is suggested that there should be another uniform regionalization hierarchical system reflecting zonal and unzonal laws of regional differentiation and this system should follow the sequence : zone, natural country, section, natural province, sub-section, natural state, hypo-section, landscape and so on.
Zone
Country
Section
Province
Sub-section
state
①Boundary of big regions
② Boundary of regions
③ Boundary of sub-regions
④ Boundary of hypo-regions
⒈ Boundary of belts
⒉ Boundary of zones
⒊ Boundary of sub-zones
⒋ Boundary of hypo-zones
Hypo-section
Landscape

37. Comprehensive Physical Regionalization
World’s physical
regionalization
The polar
Cold temperate
zone
Warm temperate
zone
Five zones and
one region
Tibetan alpine
region
Tropical
zone
The equator
Northwest
arid region
China’s physical
regionalization
East
monsoon
region
Tibetan High- cold region
Three large
regions

38. The Characteristics of Three Big Regions
(According to Xi Cheng-pan and Qiu Bao-jian)
Big region
East monsoon region
Northwest arid region
Tibetan High- cold region
Proportion to total area(%)
47.6
29.8
22.6
Proportion
to total population(%) 95
4.5
0.5
Climate
Monsoon climate;
being drought in some areas.
Arid
High cold;
low temperature
Physiognomy
Mainly being made up of plains and hills, with an elevation
below 500meters
Basins and plateau divided
by high mountains
Plateau with an
elevation above
5000 meters
Zonal
Latitude zone
Longitude zone
Vertical zone and
plateau zone
Water condition
Rivers develop well;
Precipitation supply;
Much water in south but
little in north
Island rivers;
precipitation supply,
Island rivers in west and
cradles of rivers in east;
ice and snow melting water supply
soil
Being acid in south but alkaline in
north;
abundant organic materials in northeast area;
Lime and alkali in the soil;
little organic materials;
a lot of sand and wind
Strong mechanical weathering;
organic materials being decomposed into meadow
vegetation
Tropical rainforest; evergreen broadleaf forest; Deciduous broadleaf forest; taiga forest
Dry prairie; desert prairie; desert
and taiga forest in some mountain areas
Alpine meadow; alpine prairie;
alpine desert;
forest in river valley
Agricultural characteristics
Food production; fruit; agriculture;
forest; prairie
Prairie;
oasis
Plateau prairie; agriculture distributing in valley.

39. Chapter 7 Predictions on the Earth’s Surface Environment
Section 1: Principles of predictions on the earth’s surface environment;
Section 2: The variation trend of the lithosphere;
Section 3: The variation trend of the atmosphere;
Section 4: The variation trend of the hydrosphere;
Section 5: The variation trend of the biosphere;
Section 6: The variation trend the earth’s surface environment.

40. Principles of Predictions on the Earth’s Surface Environment
Principle of space-time scale
Space-time scale must be taken into account when predicting the earth’s surface environment.
Principle of mutual effects between human beings and nature
We have to consider feedback of natural changes and human activities at the same time.
Principle of relevance
The earth’s surface environment is a complex system. Each subsystem interacts and interrelates with each other. Changes of subsystem will result in the changes of system.
Non-linear principle
When predicting the changes of environment，the first analysis we should make is the time limitation of prediction , what kind of state environment is in，whether or not it can be predicted and whether there are mutation spots during the limited time. With these, we can establish mathematics model for prediction.

41. The Variation Trends of the Lithosphere
The result of Plate movement
． Global continental Plate drifts westward: The longitude of ocean and continent will change;
． Eurasian Plate and North America Plate move in opposite directions: It will result in gradual shrink of Pacific ocean and gradual expand of Atlantic ocean;
． Australia Plate drifts northeastward: As a result, land area of southern hemisphere will decrease more and more;
． India Plate drifts northward: Tibetan plateau and Himalayas will uplift further because of the obstruct of Eurasian Plate. The western part of China will drift northward.
． East African Rift Valley enlarges: Red Sea will expand and turn into an ocean finally. Asia will separate from Africa。
There are a lot of human activities shaping the land.
Reclamation, beach protection; Construction of irrigation facilities; City construction ; Different land use patterns.

42. Direction and Velocity of Plate Movement
The direction and velocity of Plate movement won’t change a lot over decades to centuries. So is the boundary of Plate. Therefore, there won’t be essential changes to distributions of earthquake and volcano. That is to say, they still distributes on the edge of Plates especially concentrating on the circum-Pacific belt and Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt. But as far as timescale of years is concerned, there will be great changes to seismic belt, volcanic belt, distributions of Plates and land-sea profiles of the earth’s surface.

43. Land-Sea Distribution in the Future (Christensen,1991）

44. The Variation Trends of the Atmosphere
The variation trends of the components of the atmosphere
The amount of CO2，N2O，CH4 and haloid carbon in the air increases greatly but that of SO2 increases slightly. The amount of dust also changes.
The variation trends of the structure of the atmosphere
Formation of the Ozonosphere, depletion of the Ozonosphere and changes
of the Ozonosphere.
The variation trends of the atmosphere
As far as timescale of years is concerned, modern interglacier epoch is about to be over and new glacier epoch is coming. It will become colder and colder. But because of greenhouse effect resulting from human beings, there will be a contrary trend of climatic change.
As far as century timescale is concerned, it won’t be warmer than that of years between 1900 and But because of the impact imposed by human beings, greenhouse effect can not be controlled completely in a short time. Therefore, by taking account of natural factors and human disturbances, it will be warmer in 21st century than that of the 19th century but almost equal to or slightly warmer than that of 20th century.

45. The Variation Trends of Components of the Atmosphere (according to Machenzie)
Concentration
Concentration
Concentration

46. Formation and depletion of the Ozonosphere
Ultraviolet rays
Formation of the ozonosphere
Natural process
Ozone depletion
caused by Cl
Human impacts
caused by NO

47. Climatic Changes
On a view of century timescale, the change of climate has the obvious characteristics of double-century period. The latest warm peak happened during the period of There will be next warm peak after Therefore, it is relative cold during the period of That is to say, it has been relatively warm-cool since 1950 and this trend will last till There will be a lot of short-time climatic fluctuations during this period, but as far as natural trend is concerned, it will not be warmer than that of
Temperature
Greenland
Ice Land
England
global
China
(winter)
Tree-ring index
Of Qilian Mountain

48. Change Trend of the Hydrosphere
Change of sea level
．Global warming——Glacier melting——Sea level rise；
．Crustal subsidence——Relative rise of sea level；
． Land subsidence——Sea level rise；
．Temperature of sea water raising——Sea water expanding——Sea level rise.
Water circulation and the change of water balance
． Plate movement—Shrink of Pacific ocean and expand of Atlantic ocean—
change of pattern of water circulation—Regional imbalance of water balance;
． Further uplift of Tibetan Plateau——Desertification in the middle part of Asian;
． Global warming——Great changes of global water balance.
The change of components and structures of the hydrosphere
． The proportion of gaseous water and liquid water increases but that of solid water
decreases;
． Because of sea level rise, the earth surface’s water distributes toward low-latitude;
． The trend of asymmetry distribution of river, lake and swamp becomes
more and more obvious.

49. Sea Level Change
It is indicated by research that current sea level is not horizontal but irregular. This surface varies with the change of earth’s gravity field. The highest uplift lies in New Guinea with an elevation 76 meters higher than mean sea level and the biggest depression lies in Maldives with an elevation 104 meters lower than mean sea level. The height difference between them is 180 meters and it surpasses the mean change range of sea level during glacier-interglacier epoches. Because the gravity field of earth surface is determined by the earth’s interior components and the lithosphere drifts eastward away from the centrosphere and mantle, the earth’s gravity field will change all over the world. It will result in the change of sea level.

50. Sea Level Change 据Warrick et al.,1996
According to Warrick et al.,1996
Sea level changes
The change of aerosol since 1990
The amount of aerosol equal to that of 1990
High
Middle
Low
On a view of century timescale, there will be an ascend trend of sea level because of the global warming in the future. But as for the estimation to the increase range of sea level, there are great differences. According to the prediction on the trend of climate change mentioned above, we can conclude safely that mean sea level of the world will increase 15 centimeters by the year 2030 and increase centimeters by the year But taking the factors like ground subsidence into account, the increase range of sea level on some large-scale eatuarine shorelines and coastal plains is far more than the value mentioned above.
据Warrick et al.,1996

51. Effects of sea level rise
Marine erosion enhance
Storm surges enhance
Saline lands
Sewage holdback
Seawater intrusion
Affect function of haven
and sea-route
Submerge land
Flood and waterlogging strengthen

52. Change trend of biosphere
component changes of biosphere
Reduction of biologic species
scale-up of proportion of human
Task of protecting biodiversity is difficult
structure changes of biosphere
Increasing of content of microorganism in the air（humidity augment）；
Asymmetry of biology horizontal distribution in the earth surface augments much more（local diversity of precipitation enlarge）；
expanding towards mid-latitude of biologic distributing （warming）；
Space of sea and ocean ecosystem expands，but that of land ecosystem reduces（sea level rise）
Some fisheries disappear，but others maybe enlarge or shape（changes of ocean currents）.
changes of ecological productivity
Because of warming, aggravation of plant diseases and insect pests， some species’s productivity will reduce；productivity of some species，especially wheat, paddy, soybean and so on，will increase because of elevated CO2 and photosynthesis enhance.

53. Change trend of biosphere
Because biology need some time to adapt the changes of environment，a number of species will depopulation because of changes of environment. Temperature warms up，especially at the mid and high latitude, some biology which like stay around cold environment would increase or disappear because they could not bear high temperature. In some arid areas water reduces much more，some species also decreases or disappear. Although environmental changes would give birth to new species，in short time, extinct biologic species is much more than new species. In addition,because of human impact，biodiversity will destroy much more. 。That is say,in the future，biosphere is not rich and colorful than now.
Population/ten hundred million
year
Numbers of extinct animal
mammalia
birds
Population growth and extinct animal（Tao Shilong etl.）

54. Changes of biosphere construction
Physical biologic species is reducing，but the number of population is always increasing 。According to predication, amount will be more 100 million before 2050.If don’t adopt available measures，44 years later，the number of population would double. So in the future human Proportion will largen.
Population/ten hundred million
The world
Developed areas
Developing areas
Second world war
Industrial revolution
According to Mackenzie,1998

55. Changes of biosphere structure
In the view of long time ， regulation of changes of land and sea distribution 、surface relief，will cause great changes and regulation of zone of vegetation and biota, so biosphere structure would change much more. For example, forest in east Asia would disappear because of the Pacific's disappear. At last it would become grassland and desert.
Mediterranean sea
Mountain glacier
interglacial
Broad-leaved forest
North coniferous forest
The arctic ocean
Continental glacier
Pole desert
Brushy tundra
Dry grassland
Dry grass tundra
Pine
Betula
Low Betula
tundre
Mixing Quercus
Ilex and Quercus
Zelkova
Spruce and Abies
Tundra
The last Glacial maxmum (18000 aB.P.)
European vegetation changes in glacial age –interglacial age　

56. Changes of biosphere structure (wangjian,2000)
In the view of short time，global climate changes will cause the changes of biosphere structure and construction.（1）Content of microorganism increase in the air.（2）In the earth’s surface asymmetry of biologic horizon distribution largen more.（3）Biologic distribution expands towards mid-latitude.（4）Space of ocean ecosystem will scale-up，but that of land ecosystem will dwindle because of marine erosion caused by sea level rise。（5） Some fisheries disappear，but others maybe enlarge or shape because of changes of ocean currents caused by sea level rise and ocean water’s temperature changes .
Biodiversity lower
Expansion of ocean ecosystem
expand towards mid-latitude
of biologic distribution
content of microorganism
increase in the air
Diminution of pure nature
accretion of human Proportion
Changes of
biosphere
inhomogeneity of
spatial distribution
Land ecosystem reduce

57. vegetable during the process of greenhouse (double content of Co2，Mackenzie,1998)
Tundra north forest deciduous brush grass ever-green forest savanna
broad-leaved forest

58. expanded model towards mid-latitude of biologic distribution （present-day, Mackenzie,1998 ）

59. Variation trend of the earth’s surface environment
1、The more man-made environment, the less natural environment
2、changes of energy flow
population growth in a short time will not change much more. With the population growth and developments in science and technology, human influence the earth’s surface environment much more. The ratio of got-up environment or man-made environment will be higher，and that pure natural environment will be less.
Now primary energy used by human is fossil fuel（coal、petroleum、natural gas）. However, the use of fossil fuel causes many environmental problems. Human actively want to create new energy which can replace fossil fuel in all its bearings. so it will change energy flow in the future from underground to surface, from coteau to plain, from ocean to land, from country to city.

60. Variation trend of the earth’s surface environment
3、changes of matter flow
Changes of aspect and intensity
matter exchange between human and environment
strengthening exchange between human and environment
4、changes of information flow
Changes of aspect ：In the future information flow will not change but enhance from developed country and area to developing country.
intensity：Intensity will augment distinctly.
velocity：With the development of communication and network technology，speed of transmission will enhance greatly.

61. Chapter 16 Planning and Management of the Earth’s Surface Environment
General description of environmental planning
Drawing-up of environmental planning
Environmental management and its characteristics
Task and content of environmental management
Measures of environmental management
Environmental management information system

62. Environmental planning and principle
Environmental planning is organic composition of national economy and social development plan ，and refers to concrete plan of environmental decision in the scale of time and space.And it also bring forward explicit environmental goal and impactful measures protecting environmental waste and damage，in order to improve eco-environment，and advance coordinated development of environment, economy and society.
assorting with economy and societal development projects
Principles of
Environmental
planning
feasible and easy to operate
Ameliorating environment，guarantee correspond between environment , society and economy

63. Feature of environmental planning
local diversity:Based on regional difference，environmental planning must build upon regional environment characteristic，in order to achieve maneuverability.
harmonization: Environment planning should combine with country economy and social developmental planning，and harmonize development with protection.
dynamic properties: Goals and contents will change constantly，so they should be endlessly recruited and amended。
synthesis properties:The object of environmental planning is the earth’s surface environment.And the earth’s surface environment is a complex syntheses. Environmental planning colligates more knowledge.

64. Classification of environmental planning
Short-term planning
According to time limit :
Medium-term planning
Long-term planning
According to range and level:
Global environmental planning
Country environmental planning
Regional environmental planning
According to object:
comprehensive (unitary) environmental planning
special (subject、section) environmental planning

65. Principles of drawing-up of environmental planning
Ecology balance
Contact and restrict each other
limit property principle each resource and environmental bearing the weight are limit.
integer principle In the environment system each element or variable which contact and restrict each other composes organic entia.
local characteristics principle the earth’s surface environment provides with regional attributes，so adjusting measures should accord as local conditionds.
principle of taking prevention first Perist in principles of taking prevention first，integrating prevention and cure，comprehensive planning，proper redistribution，standing out stress，giving attention to two or morethings，and turning working stresses around environmental comprehensive regulatory.

66. proceeding of drawing-up of environmental planning
Commonly， the drawing-up of environmental planning is to figure out the environment question in some area，improve ecology environment，and correspond with relationship between environment, economy and society. Owing to distinct objects, goals, tasks,contents and extensions，there are many types of environment planning. But whatever it is，it must keep to some produces and methods:
Programming work plan
Environmental research and evaluation
environment forecast
proceeding of drawing-up
of environmental planning
ascertain aims
design schemes of environmental planning
declare Schemes and examine and approve
Carry into practice

67. Characters of environmental management
stratagem Environmental management contacts with implementing sustainable development strategy.
synthesis environmental management must be incorporated into the national economic and social development plans; the state shall adopt economic and technological policies and measures favorable for environmental protection so as to coordinate the work of environmental protection with economic construction and social development. The state shall encourage the development of education in the science of environmental protection, strengthen the study and development of the science and technology of environmental protection, raise the scientific and technological level of environmental protection and popularize scientific knowledge of environmental protection.
Quality of region Environmental management should adjust measures to local conditions, put forward diverse measures，adopt different methods and artifices to realization according to different areas.
Universality All units and individuals shall have the obligation to protect the environment and shall have the right to report on or file charges against units or individuals that cause pollution or damage to the environment. The people's government shall give awards to units and individuals that have made outstanding achievements in protecting and improving the environment.

68. Task of environmental management
（1）Reasonably empolder and make use of natural resource，maintain ecology balance order to sustain.
（2）Attach importance to prevention and cure of environment pollution and optimization and reconstruction of ecological environment，in the interest of human’s subsistence and development.
（3）Natural environment system’s structure and function optimize towards direction what people prospective by controlling its matter flow, energy flow, information flow.
（4）Human play a directorial and under directorial role in environmental management.Therefore，human should take powerful measures to adjust and alter human unreasonable behaviors and activities，in order to reduce waste and destroy.
（5） establish feasible policies, laws, ordinances, programming of environmental protection，put forward material routes and measures.
（6）go along environment science research，for the sake of environmental protect to train person with management ability. At the same time，strengthen propagandism and education work in order to advance people’s participant consciousness.

69. classification and content of environmental management
content of environmental management is far-ranging and complicated. Commonly we can compartmentalize it in the aspect of administrant range and attribution.
（一） Classifying according to range
1.resource environmental management
2. professional environmental management
3.regional environmental management
（二）Classifying according to property
1. environmental quality management
2. environmental arrange management
3. environmental technique management

70. Instruments of environmental management
Law instruments ：It is a coercive measure of environmental management——making the law and executing the law.
Economic instruments：adopt economic instruments ,as the example of toll of blow down, economic penalty, compensation for a loss, incentive complex utilization. Sufficiently display the role of economic law in the environmental management.
Administration instruments ：It recurs to actualize executive decision and supervision in allusion to protection of resource and environment based on organic and commanding influence invested by nation and all levels states.
Technique means：The result of stand or fall lies on technology in a way.Therefore，if without advanced technology，it would only be a dream of managing environment efficaciously.
Educational instruments ：Through all kinds of routes and manners，and giving publicity to the conception of environmental protection far and wide，the public can find out significance and task of environmental protection, excitated environmental protection passion and enthusiasm，protect and devote voluntarily to environment，accordingly in order to form powerful public opinion，put down behavior of wasting resource and destroying environment.

71. Environmental management information system
Environmental management information system is a complex and ordered technical system provided with integrated function refering to realizing manipulation of input、output、modification、increase、deletion、transmission、secrecy、searches、calculation of environment information, saving environmental information in the computer based on present-day data-base，according to hardware and software， and integrating application software of statistic mathematics, optimization management analysis、forecast evaluation model、programming decision model、cartographic output.

72. Procedure of environmental management information system
project: Based on diagnoses，fix on aim and require of environmental management information system，formulate and filtrate best project, workout feasibility research report.
analysis: Design logic system according with demands of practicality and consumer. Contents include system survey,function requirement analysis, data analysis, advancing logical model and authorizing report.
design: In this step according to logical model putting forward physical model is the primary task。Choosing the best from all kinds technologies and methods，and carry into physical model in order to resolve “how to do”.
putting in practice: when design is over，system must be tested, checked and accepted. When the system is ok, you can use it. During the course of operation，pay attention to system maintenance because of guaranteeing sustainable development.

73. Chapter 17 Adjustment of the Earth’s Surface System
General description of adjustment
Principles of adjustment
Ways of adjustment
Methods and models of optimization, regulation and control

74. Process of adjustment
Concept: Adjustment of the Earth’s Surface System ，means through people intervene purposefully in order that human can benefit from the development of the earth’s surface environment, and can obtain anticipative aims。
Essence:it includes that human constantly ameliorate the relationship between human and environment，through adjustment of the earth’s surface system，in order to achieving the aims of harmony and unification between human and environment.
nodus: Earth’s Surface System is a most complex gigantic system.people are short of knowledge of laws of development and evolution of natural environment. people’s control ability is quite limit，especially difficult to control nature in long time and large scale.

75. Theories and principles of adjustment
（一）coordination
（二）flexibility
（三）global optimization
（四）ecological principle
（五）economic principle
（六）adaptability
Theories of adjustment
（一）system and systematic ideology
（二)feedback and control
（三）adjustment

76. procedures of adjustment
Preparation
Adjustment of the earth’s surface system is a difficult, gigantic and intricate systemic engineering，and takes on a suit of scientific and rigorous procedure.
The left is step.
Confirming aims
Advancing scheme
feedback
System modeling
optimization design
Confirming control scheme
put into execution and control
Environmental system
input
output

77. Ways of adjustment Control of matter flow
achieving the aim of controlling systemic structure and function though adjusting input or output of systemic physical quality and quantity
Control of energy flow
achieving the aim of control and optimize earth’s surface environment though adjusting energy flow
Control of information flow
Changes of information flow will change systemic structure and function. So controlling information flow ,also can achieve the aim of controlling environment.

78. Linear layout model
traits: It is one of simplest and broadest mathematics planning method，and also one of an optimum method used earliest.
applying: It only solves problems that target function and constraint conditions all take on the linearity.
produce: first confirm aim,then analyze all factors influence on aims in order ascertain target function and all constraint conditions，then establish linear programming model，last conclude by mathematics.

79. Analytic hiberarchy process
feature Analytic hiberarchy process which provides with quite scientific properties, logicality and practicability, integrates qualitative analysis with quantitative analysis,，and also it is an efficient method to adjust environment as complex system。
procedure First regard complex problem as a system ，through analyzing all factors establish the hiberarchy of each factor；compare each factor of hiberarchy，present relative essentiality；more count each ratio of each factor and compositor；lastly according to compositor carry on integrated evaluation， line up excellent and inferior scheme.

80. reAnalyzing of cost and benefit
out put
Compare benefit with cost
cost calculating
benefit calculating
cost of control planning
Degree of improving
environment
Benefit of each plan
environmental function analysis
Relationship between the degree of environmental
damage and environmental function damage
Making clear question and controlled goal
Analyzing of cost and benefit is one of economic analytic
method in best common use.theory and practice developed in USA in 1930,and now are widely used in environment economic analysis.。
Its principium is that: firstly list all cost and benefits ，then denote quantificationally recurring to money，considering time worth of capital， and embodying all cost and benefits，lastly calculate existing cash of net benefit。Using net benefit as criterion，choose the best scheme.
The right is common step。