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Models and Concepts APHG Review
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Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration
British sociologist (1834 – 1913) Laws of Migrations: Most migrants go only a short distance Distance Decay Most migrations proceed step-by-step (Lee’s Model) If they do move a long distance, they are more likely to travel to a big city (Gravity Model) Every migration flow produces a counterflow Rural migrants move to city; city dwellers move to suburbs Most migration is from rural to urban Families are less likely to make international moves than young adults Most international migrants are young males Changed with time; women comprise 40-60% of International migrants (55% of U.S. migrants)
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Types of Migration Voluntary Migration Forced Migration
Choose to migrate Remember Must be permanent If they return (guest workers, time-contract workers) they are not included in these numbers a.k.a. Involuntary migration Examples: Triangle Trade Atlantic Arm Native American relocation in Great Plains region of U.S.
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Global Migration Trends
From less-developed Stage 2 countries To more-developed Stage 4 countries 3 largest migration flows Asia to Europe Asia to North America Latin America to North America Net In Migration: Europe, North America & Oceania Net Out Migration: Asia, Latin America & Africa
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U.S. Immigration Trends 3 Phases American colonies
European settlement, mainly British African slaves Nineteenth-Twentieth Century : Western Europe 1880s: Northern Europe Beginning of Twentieth Century: Southern & Eastern Europe 2nd Half of Twentieth Century Latin America & Asia Periods of Decline U.S. Civil War, 1893 Depression, WWI, Great Depression, WWII
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Key Terms Defined Push Factor: Factor that induces people to leave old residences. Pull Factor: Factor that induces people to move to a new location. Intervening Obstacle: An environmental or cultural feature of the landscape that hinders migration. Intervening Opportunity: A favorable environmental, economic or cultural feature that redirects migration.
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Lee’s Model of Migration
Destination Source Region Push Factors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Pull Factors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Intervening Obstacle Migration
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Push/Pull Factors (Lee’s Model of Migration)
Economic Environmental Cultural Economic & Environmental push/pull factors are generally associated with voluntary migration. Cultural push/pull factors are generally associated with forced migration Note: people tend to move on excessively positive images/expectations that may not always be accurate
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Push/Pull Factors Push Factors Pull Factors Economic Environmental
Poverty Few job opportunities Low wages Environmental Hazardous regions Adverse physical conditions Too little water/too much water Cultural Slavery Political instablity Religious/ethnic persecution (refugees) Economic Higher standard of living More job opportunities Higher wages Environmental Stable climates Cultural Stable political conditions
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Intervening Obstacle/Opportunity
Examples of Obstacles Environmental Mountains, rivers, bodies of water, etc. Cultural Passport to leave/visa to come in Economic Run out of money Examples of Opportunities New jobs along migration route Jobs created to divert rivers for irrigation (economic as well) Move into an ethnic enclave along route
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Practical Application of Lee’s Model
Source Region Destination Region Return Pull Factors + Push Factors - Intervening Obstacle Pull Factors + Push Factors - Migration Few Arrive Many leave Intervening Opportunity Other Destination
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Gravity model Interaction is proportional to the multiplication of the two populations divided by the distance between them (distance decay); based on Newton’s Law of Gravity
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Language Classification
Language Families Language Branches Language Groups Languages Dialects Accents
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Universalizing vs. Ethnic Religions
58% of the world Organization Religion Branch Denomination Sect 26% of the world
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Holy Sites Universalizing Ethnic
Cities & places associated with founder’s life Ethnic Distinctive physical environment of its hearth
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Holy Days Universalizing Ethnic
Commemorate events in the founder’s life Ethnic Celebration of the seasons
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Methods of Diffusion Universalizing Religions Ethnic Religions
Relocation diffusion Christian missionaries Contagious Diffusion Muslims marrying non-Arabs Hierarchical Diffusion Emperor Asoka converting to Buddhism Ethnic Religions Most lack diffusion
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Buddhism Origins Siddhartha Gautama, 563 BCE, son of a lord
Age 29, left his sheltered life & for 6 years meditated in a forest in India Emerged Buddha “enlightened one” Spent 45 years preaching across India
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Buddhism Major Branches Theravada Mahayana Tantrayana
Must renounce possessions & become a monk Cite Buddha’s wisdom & stress meditation Mahayana Less demanding, all encompassing Tantrayana
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Buddhism Current Distribution = 400 million followers Locations
Mahayanist = 56% Theravadists = 38% Tantrayanists = 6% Locations M = China, Japan & Korea Th = Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka & Thailand Ta = Tibet & Mongolia
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Christianity Origin Founded on teachings of Jesus
Born in Bethlehem between 8 & 4 BCE Died in Jerusalem in 30 CE Christians believe the Jesus died for human sins and was resurrected by God
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Christianity Major Branches Roman Catholic: Orthodoxy Protestantism
teachings of Bible & Church Hierarchy (Pope) Orthodoxy Split with Roman Catholicism beginning in the 5 c., finalized in 1054 Protestantism Reformation in 16th c. Martin Luther
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Christianity Current Distribution = 2 billion followers Locations
51% R.C. 24% Protestant 11% Orthodox 14% other Christian churches Locations R.C.: S & W Europe, Latin America Protestant: N. America, N. Europe, Oceania Orthodox: E. Europe
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Islam Origin Muhammad was born in 570 in Mecca
At 40, he received his first message from Allah through the Archangel Gabriel Quran is a record of God’s words as relayed to Muhammad from the angel Gabriel In 622, after much persecution Muhammad was commanded to move to Yathrib (renamed Medina or “the City of the Prophet”)
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Islam Major Branches Sunni Shiites (Shia)
Sunnis recognize the four caliphs after Muhammad as legitimate religious leaders Shiites (Shia) Shiites believe the only Ali (who was Muhammad’s son-in-law) is the only legitimate caliph as he was Muhammad’s closest male heir
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Islam Current Distribution – 1.3 Billion people Locations Sunni = 83%
Shiites = 16% Locations Middle East North Africa to Central Asia Outside the Middle East = 50% of Muslims Indonesia Pakistan Bangladesh India
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Distribution of Christianity in U.S.
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Hinduism Origin Holy Sites Branches Distribution
BCE, no single founder Mingling of Aryan & Dravidian beliefs Holy Sites Ganges & Mt. Kailās (Siva) Branches Vaishnavism (Vishnu) = est. 70% Sivaism (Siva) = 26% Autonomous religion No set way to worship, no central authority Distribution 97% clustered in India
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Judaism Origin Holy Sites Distribution = 14 million
Abraham moved to Canaan Monotheistic, differed from polytheistic groups surrounding Holy Sites Canaan (Bible), Palestine (Romans), Israel Distribution = 14 million 1/3 in U.S. 1/3 in Israel 1/3 elsewhere Diaspora Forced from Eastern Mediterranean by Romans during 70 CE
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Difference between Ethnicity & Nationality
Identity with a group of people that share distinct physical and mental traits as a product of common heredity and cultural traditions. Culture Identity with a group of people that share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular place as a result of being born there. Location
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Nation-States Ethnicities became nationalities with the rise of nation-states Concept of nation-states developed in Europe in the 19th c. Examples Iceland Denmark Poland Japan
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Part-Nation States A nation dispersed across and predominant in two or more states Arab Nation
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Multinational States Multiethnic state Multinational state Examples
Example: U.S. Many ethnicities contributing to a single nationality Multinational state Examples U.K. : English, Scottish, Welsh & N. Irish U.S.S.R : 15 republics = 15 largest ethnicities = 15 countries
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Stateless nations A nationality that doesn’t have a territory of its own Kurds & Assyrian Christians in Iraq Palestinians Roma Chechnya Basques
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Hispanic/Latin Distribution
Clustered in the Southwest 87% of total Hispanic population in four states California Texas New York Florida 2/3 of all Hispanic Americans come from Mexico
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Distribution of African-Americans
Clustered in the Southeast Other areas of high concentration Washington D.C. = 52.2% Very few African Americans Northeast Northern border states
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Asian American Distribution
Clustered in the West Other areas of high concentrations New York = 8.2% Lower concentrations South
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American Indian & Alaska Native Distribution
California Oklahoma Arizona Texas New York Majority in all American Indian & Alaska Native in 10 states California, Oklahoma, Arizona, Texas & New York New Mexico Washington North Carolina Florida Michigan
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Theorists Carl Sauer Thomas Malthus Esther (Ester) Boserup
Origins of agriculture = “lands of plenty” Allow for experimentation with plants & animals Thomas Malthus Projected that population growth would outpace food supply Esther (Ester) Boserup Population growth influences agricultural innovations Opposed Malthus
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First Agricultural Revolution
Neolithic Revolution Carl Sauer 1st hearth = Southeast Asia 14,000 yrs ago Argued multiple independent hearths over 1000s of years Fertile Crescent 10,000 yrs ago Seed crops Cultivation of seed crops led to the First Agricultural Revolution
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Different Kinds of Agriculture
Subsistence Commercial Shifting Cultivation Slash-and-burn Pastoral nomadism Intensive Lots of work Extensive Not as much work Dairy Grain Livestock Mediterranean Commercial gardening Plantation (LDCs)
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Second Agricultural Revolution
17th & 18th centuries Developed in Europe Coincided with Industrial Revolution
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Changes New climates opened to agriculture
Increased the sizes of farms Fewer people in agriculture Four-Field rotation Maintains fertility New technologies Selective Breeding
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Third Agricultural Revolution
Green Revolution 1930s Increase yields New fertilizers Genetically modified seeds (biotechnology) “Miracle Seed”
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von Thünen Johann Heinrich von Thünen (1783 – 1850)
German Farmer As moved further away from the city one crop ended & another began Set in concentric circles around the city First ring: Market gardening & dairy Second ring: Lumber Third ring: Grains & extensive crops Fourth ring: Ranching & livestock
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Economic Activities Review
Primary Sector Extraction Secondary Sector Processing & manufacturing Tertiary Sector Services, sales & exchanging goods Quaternary Sector Exchange of information Quinary Sector High level decision-making & research
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Basic vs. Non-basic Basic industry – an industry critical to the health of an area’s economy. Generates revenue from outside the local area Non-basic industry – Industries that sell their products primarily to consumers in the community. Generates revenue from within the community Money is circulated between members of the community Grocery stores, barbershops, etc.
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Immanuel Wallerstein World Systems Theory
Theory of a global core, periphery and semipeiphery Economic & political Development occurred faster in global core due to exposure to new technologies Core Periphery Model maps level of development Underdeveloped countries (periphery) dependent on… Developed countries (core)
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Polar Projection
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Characteristics Core Periphery Wealthy/rich Tertiary sector or above
High literacy rates Low CBRs In-migration Gender equality Democratic Colonizers Poor Primary/secondary sector Low literacy rates High CBRs Out-migration Gender roles Not democratic Colonies/colonized
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Examples Core Periphery Countries Regions Countries Regions
United States U.K. Belgium Germany France Canada Regions North America Western Europe Countries Peru Democratic Republic of Congo Yemen North Korea Afghanistan Regions Sub-Saharan Africa
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Semiperiphery? Semiperiphery shares characteristics of both core & periphery Countries: BRIC Brazil Russia India China Others Mexico South Africa Indonesia
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Rostow’s Stages of Development
Attempt to explain the stages that a country goes through as it moves from LDC/periphery to MDC/core
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Stage 1: The traditional society
Description Economic Predominantly primary sector (esp. subsistence agriculture) Social Hierarchical social structure Political Landowners Cultural values Resistant to change Country Afghanistan U.S. Pre-Independence
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Stage 2: Preconditions for takeoff
Description Economic Surplus of agriculture Expanding secondary sector Social Some urbanization Political Centralized national government Cultural values Progress & openness Country India U.S. First half of 1800s
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Stage 3: Takeoff Description Country U.S. Economic Social Political
New technologies in few sectors Social Entrepreneurial class emerges as dominant Political Factions push for modernization Cultural values Investment of capital for profit Country Thailand U.S. Middle of the 1800s
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Stage 4: Drive to Maturity
Description Economic New technologies emerge in all sectors Social Urbanization Political Industrial leaders increasingly influential Cultural values Expectation of progress Country South Korea U.S. Late 1800s
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Stage 5: Age of Mass Consumption
Description Economic Tertiary sector dominant Social Emergence of middle class & suburbs Political Push for social welfare Cultural values Increased demand for consumer goods Country Japan U.S. Early 1900s
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Least Cost Theory Must weigh the cost of transportation, labor & advantages of agglomeration Transportation Must account for transportation of raw materials & finished product Based on weight Bulk-gaining industry Finished product heavier than input parts Locate close to market Bulk-reducing industry Finished product lighter than input parts Locate close to raw materials
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Locational triangle Balance the cost between the market & two raw materials
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Human Development Index (HDI)
Measure of development conducted by the UN Measures development in terms of human welfare rather than money 3 dimensions (four indicators) Health Life expectancy at birth Education (average of two indices) Mean years of schooling (at 25) Expected years of schooling (at start of schooling) Living Standards GNI per capita (NOT GDP)
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HDI by Region MDCs LDCs Japan: 0.96 North America: 0.95 Europe: 0.93
Oceania: 0.90 Russia: 0.73 Latin America: 0.82 East Asia: 0.77 SW Asia & N. Africa: 0.74 SE Asia: 0.73 Central Asia: 0.70 South Asia: 0.61 Sub-Saharan African: 0.51
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Brandt Line Also known as the North/South divide
Divides the more developed North (generally core) with the less developed South (periphery)
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Deindustrialization Examples: Effects: Rust Belt
Shift to tertiary sector Improved environment High unemployment (temporarily)
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Maquiladoras Maquiladoras
Factories built by U.S. companies in Mexico near the U.S. border to take advantage of much lower labor costs Low-wage workers Foreign-owned factories Import raw materials/components (do not use local resources, beyond labor) Export finished goods
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EPZs Attempt to attract foreign business with favorable business climates Maquiladoras are EPZs in Mexico Situated at/near the border Free of import tariffs Special Economic Zones are EPZs in China Situated near major port cities
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Self-Sufficiency Spread investment across as many sectors as possible
Modest but fair Development more evenly distributed Limits imports (limits competition) High tariffs Quotas on imports Example: India & China Most countries don’t use self-sufficiency any more
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International Trade Approach
Must identify unique economic assets Must produce better quality at lower price then other countries Examples Four Asian Tigers Arabian Peninsula countries
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Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM)
Measure to gauge how involved women are in improving their status Economic power Female income as % of male income % of professional & technical jobs held by women Political power % of administrative jobs held by women % of national parliament that are women
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Other Definitions Urban Areas City Nucleated Non-agricultural jobs
Core area Central Business District (CBD) Non-agricultural jobs Louis Wirth 3 Characteristics: Large Size High Density Social Heterogeneity Does not apply to MDCs anymore All but 1% hold “urban” jobs
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Historical Patterns of Urbanization
First urban revolution Innovation of the city 5 Urban Hearths Mesopotamia (3500 B.C.E.) (10k-15k pop.) Nile River Valley (10k-15k pop) Indus River Valley Huang He (Yellow)/Wei (Yangtze) Valleys Mesoamerica Sometimes Peru is said to be the 6th urban hearth
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Rank-Size Rule Relatively developed societies produce a ranking in the hierarchy of their cities according to a mathematical formula The nth largest settlement in a region is 1/n the population of the largest settlement in the region Felix Auerbach (1913) suggested George Zipf (1941) created formula Zipf’s Law Generally applies more to MDCs than LDCs
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Urban Primacy In less developed countries/regions, the largest city is overly populated. These large cities are known as primate cities The largest settlement in a country, if it has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement.
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Primate Cities Primate Cities 2nd Largest City Mexico City, Mexico
8,605,239 London, UK 8,174,100 Paris, France 2,234,105 Guadalajara 1,646,183 Birmingham 1,074,300 Marseilles 853,000
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Central Place Theory A.K.A. Christaller’s Theory Central Place Theory
Walter Christaller: The Central Places in Southern Germany (1933) Central Place Theory Determines where places in the urban hierarchy (hamlets, villages, towns & cities) are located spatially & functionally Establishes a central place surrounded by the market area
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Market Areas The area surrounding a central place from which people are attracted to use the place’s goods and services. Market area varies based: Range The max distance people will travel for a service Threshold The minimum number of people needed to support a service
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Concentric Zone E.W. Burgess 1923 Based on Chicago 5 rings
Concentric Zone = Burgess Model 1923 Based on Chicago 5 rings CBD: nonresidential activities Can be subdivided into other sub districts (theater, retail, government, etc.) Zone in Transition (ZIT): Industry & lower-income housing Working-class homes Zone of middle-class homes Commuter zone As areas expand, zones will overflow into subsequent zones (invasion) causing current residents to move further away (succession)
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Sector Model Homer Hoyt Late 1930s
Response to the limitations of the Burgess model Impact of transportation routes City develops in sectors, not rings Industry will develop along good transportation lines
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Multiple Nuclei Harris and Ullman 1945 CBD losing its dominance
Multiple centers (polycentric) emerge around various activities These centers might attract other activities More complex than concentric zone or sector Source: Livinston Schools APHG teacher
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Urban Realms Model James E. Vance 1964
Attempt to improve the multiple nuclei model Based on San Francisco, CA City is made up of small “realms” which are self-sufficient Most geographers believe this is more accurate than traditional models Development of edge cities Source: Geography.about.com
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Latin America A.K.A. Griffin-Ford Model 1980
Combines traditional Latin American culture with forces of globalization CBD Traditional market sector Modern high-rise sector Commercial Spine Housing SES decreases as distance increases from city center
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Europe Cities are much older Streets Residential
Narrow (pre-automobile) Residential SES decreases as distance increases Skyscrapers located farther from city center Greenbelts Used to prevent urban sprawl
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SE Asia T.G. McGee 1967 Port “Alien Commercial Zone”
Central part of the city No CBD Broken into areas surround port (government zone, etc.) “Alien Commercial Zone” Dominated by the Chinese Often has smaller zones within other larger zones
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Sub-Saharan Africa CBD Residential 3 CBDs Often along ethnic lines
Colonial (former) Market zone Traditional CBD Residential Often along ethnic lines
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Islamic City Climate Religion Other characteristics
Light-colored surface Twisting streets to maximize shade Religion Mosque at the center of the city, main focal point Promote privacy Other characteristics Open-air markets
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Borchert’s Model Model of interstate (or international) travel
Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790 – 1830) Iron Horse Epoch (1830 – 1870) Steel-Rail Epoch (1870 – 1920) Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920 – 1970) Satellite-Electronic-Jet Propulsion Epoch ( ?) Not a formal stage of Borchert’s model Source: Del Mar College
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Ghettoization & Urban Decay
More affluent families leave the inner city for suburbs As people leave, the tax base diminishes Cities then become the center of poverty In North America
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Redlining & Filtering As affluent houses are vacated
Owners will subdivide the house & rent it out to multiple renters (Filtering) As the city decays Banks identify areas that they refuse to loan money to (Redlining) Illegal
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Gentrification Low-income areas attract middle-class groups for a number of reasons Larger residences Stable construction Cheaper Attractive architectural designs Location near downtown employment, services, entertainment Groups Groups that have limited/no family obligations & higher incomes (Yuppies, SINKS, DINKS, empty nesters)
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Squatter Settlements UN: 175 million people live in squatter settlements 43% of LDC urban population live in these settlements Periphery of city Built with whatever people can find Limited/no services Most people employed informally or illegally
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