1. CHAPTER THREE The Psychological Approach: A Profusion of Theories

2. Psychology  The scientific study of mind and behavior.  Uses the scientific method as a means of gaining knowledge.  Investigates internal mental events such as reasoning, language, and memory.  Also investigates external behaviors such as talking, walking, and grasping.

3. The Scientific Method  A theory is a general understanding of the world that organizes a set of facts and aids us in understanding how the world works.  A hypothesis is a more specific statement about the world that is frequently derived from a hypothesis and can be tested.

4. Experiments  Scientists use experiments to test hypotheses.  An experiment must have at least two variables.  The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher.  The dependent variable is measured by the researcher.

5. Experiments  An experiment must also have at least two conditions or groups.  The experimental group receives the independent variable.  The control group does not.

6. Experiments – An Example  Theory: Practice facilitates problem solving.  Hypothesis: Doing logic problems before being tested will increase scores on a subsequent logic test.

7. Experiments – An Example  Experimental group: 20 participants. Allowed to practice solving problems for 10 minutes. Then given a test problem. Independent variable is practice.  Control group: 20 participants. Not allowed to practice. Given the same test problem. Dependent variable is scores on the test.

8. Experiments – An Example  Scores on the dependent variable for the two groups are compared.  If test scores in the experimental group are significantly higher, then the hypothesis is supported.

9. Voluntarism  Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is founder.  View that the mind is made up of elements.  The elements are assembled into wholes through an act of will.  Influenced by atoms and molecules of chemistry.

10. Introspection  Method used by the voluntarists and other early psychologists.  Means “inner looking.” Consists of subjective self-report of mental states.  Fraught with difficulties.

11. Structuralism  Edward Titchener (1867-1927) considered founder.  Shares the beliefs that mind is made of elements and use of introspection with voluntarism.  But viewed element combination occurring through passive mechanical laws.

12. Functionalism  Closely associated with William James (1842- 1910).  Focus is on mental processes and functions rather than elements.  Idea of a stream of consciousness. Thought is flowing and changing, not static.

13. Gestalt Psychology  Contributors include Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kohler (1887-1967), and Koffka (1886-1941).  View that mind consists of wholes that are more than the sum of their parts, described as a gestalt.  Method was phenomenology, a subjective description of an external stimulus.

14. Laws of Perceptual Organization  Parts group together based on their relationships.  Parts that are (a) proximal, (b) similar, and form (c) closed or (d) good figures tend to go together.

15. Insight Learning  Initial attempts to solve a problem fail.  Problem is put aside for some time.  Solution occurs rapidly, perhaps through unconscious processes, and is then verified. Kohler’s chimp incubates on a problem.

16. Psychoanalytic Psychology  Established by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).  Mind is made up of “ mini-minds ” that compete for control.  Three states of consciousness: 1. Conscious 2. Preconscious 3. Unconscious

17. Psychoanalytic Psychology  In addition, three primary mental structures: 1. Id. Runs on the pleasure principle. 2. Superego. Runs on the idealistic principle. 3. Ego. Runs on the reality principle.

18. Behaviorism  The mind of an organism (O) is a “ Black Box. ” It cannot be studied.  Focus is instead on behaviors or responses (R).  Responses can be controlled through stimuli (S).

19. Types of Learning  Classical conditioning: Unconditioned stimulus (US). Unconditioned response (UR). Conditioned stimulus (CS). Conditioned response (CR).  Operant conditioning: Reinforcement. Punishment.

20. Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Studying Grouping Quantitatively  Kubovy and Wagemans (1995) showed six lattice types to observers.  They reported which way the dots grouped.  The likelihood of grouping was plotted as a function of the distances between dots.  The resulting attraction function showed an exponential increase.