1. Chapter 12
Gender

2. What is Gender? Sex is being biologically male or female
Gender is the social psychological dimension of sex
Gender role – set of expectations of how a person will act, think & feel because of their sex
Gender typing – how a person acquires appropriate gender behavior

3. Gender – Biological or Plastic?
Prenatal hormone theory
CAH (congenital adrenal hyperplasia)
Androgen insensitive males
Pelvic field defect
Missing penis
Castrated & raised as girls
Do not accept this identify

4. Gender – Biological Influences
Testosterone
Sex & violence
Violent criminals have high levels
Pro-players have higher levels than ministers
Social Gregariousness
Math & Spatial Ability

5. Gender – Social Influence & Learning Theories
Social role theory
Power & status
Social-cognitive theory of gender
Observation, imitation & reinforcement

6. Gender – Cognitive Influence Theories
Cognitive developmental theory
Must have a masculine or feminine identity
Gender constancy
Gender schema theory
Organize the world as male/female

7. Gender Stereotyping Gender stereotyping is pervasive
Men – dominant, aggressive, independent, achievement-oriented, enduring
Women – nurturing, affiliative, less esteemed, more helpful in distress
Williams & Best (1982) 30 countries

8. Gender Differences - Emotional Regulation
Boys regulate their emotions more poorly than girls do.
This leads to
More behavior problems, aggression, teasing, low cooperation, overreaction to frustration

9. Gender Differences - SocioEmotional
Boys are more physically aggressive
Equally verbally aggressive
Girls are more relationally aggressive
Boys are more active, adventurous

10. Gender Differences - Brain
Females brains smaller, more surface
Larger corpus callosum; more bilateral use
Emotional expression areas more active; more general activity
Males
Larger area on hypothalamus related to sex drive
Larger parietal lobe area for visual-spatial

11. Are Gender Differences Important?
Sometimes.
Nurses vs. architects & engineers
Men have more accidents
Should women be in combat?
Women often disrespected
Double standard (morality)
Women have babies; men do not

12. Are Gender Differences Important?
Janet Shifley Hyde (feminist psychologist)
Gender differences are exaggerated
Meta analyses minimize the verbal, math, etc.
Largest differences are in motor skills, sex, physical aggression

13. What is Androgyny? Bem Sex-role Inventory Androgynous Masculine
Feminine
Undifferentiated
Gender-role transcencence

14. Gender Socialization Boys get earlier & more intense socialization
Male role models are less accessible to young boys
Socialization more flexible for girls

15. War on Boys? Told to act tough and not show feelings Pollock 1999
Others – “War on Boys”
Not allowed to be active, aggressive
Over-diagnosed ADHD
Do not do well in school

16. Are gender roles important?
The “weaker sex”
Women as property
Influence of Christianity
Influence of Technology
Women in the workforce
Changing the work team dynamics
Changing the family team dynamics
Who’s minding the children?

17. Gender in Adulthood Women Role overload Role conflict Men Role strain
Contradictory, inconsistent demands
Poorly-defined role
Problems with health & relationships

18. What is Gender Identity Disorder and What Causes It?
Normal sex role development and adjustment may be hampered by father absence (Rekers, 1986)
Gender Identity Disorder of Childhood (American Psychiatric Association,1980)

19. A Study on Gender Identity Disorder
Young children try out a variety of sex-role behaviors
Four pathological patterns have been identified
Hyper masculine (male)
Violent, destructive, uncontrolled & lacking in social sensitivity
Hyper feminine (male)
Feminine movements, girls clothes, girl playmates, childbearing fantasies

20. A Study on Gender Identity Disorder
In one NIMH study of 70 gender-disturbed boys, the boys were found to be physically normal
However, 80% of mothers and 45% of fathers had a history of mental problems/psychiatric treatment.

21. Gender Identity Disorder & Father Absence
Findings
Fathers were absent in all cases of the most disturbed boys, and 54% of those less disturbed.
75% of most disturbed & 37% of less disturbed had no father or father substitute present in the home
Average age of separation from the father was 3.55 years; the most common cause was divorce.
Where a father or father substitute was present, he was described as “psychologically remote” in 60% of the cases.

22. A Study on Gender Identity Disorder
The same study reports results of treatment/intervention that appears to have been successful.
If untreated, by late adolescence or adulthood, about three-fourths of boys with a childhood history of Gender Identity Disorder report a homosexual or bisexual orientation, but without concurrent GID.

23. A Study on Gender Identity Disorder
Recommendations include:
Better communication of research on the effects of divorce of the parents on the children
Using preventive education to teach fathers the value and importance of their active, warm, emotional involvement with their children
Further research on claims regarding the therapeutic effects of religious conversion and church support on curing transsexualism

24. Transgender
An umbrella term coined by activists to describe individuals who are:
Heterosexual cross-dressers
Homosexual transvestites
Transsexuals
She-males

25. Gender Bill of Rights
Second International Conference on Transgender Law and Employment Policy, Houston, Texas, 1993
“All human beings carry within themselves an ever-unfolding idea of who they are and what they are capable of achieving. The individual’s sense of self is not determined by chromosomal sex, genitalia, assigned birth sex, or initial gender role. Thus the individual’s identity and capabilities cannot be circumscribed by what society deems to be masculine or feminine behavior.
It is fundamental that individuals have the right to define, and to redefine as their lives unfold, their own gender identity, without regard to chromosomal sex, genitalia, assigned birth sex, or initial gender role.”

26. Gender Bill of Rights
Based upon the statement on the previous slide, the following rights are claimed:
Free expression of gender identity.
Right to control and change one’s body.
Competent medical & professional care.
Freedom from psychiatric diagnosis or treatment.
Right to sexual expression.
Right to form committed, loving relationships and enter into marital contracts
Right to conceive or adopt children & have custody of children & parental rights

27. Are Transgenders Mentally Disordered?
The DSM still lists transsexualism and transvestism as paraphilias.
(Homosexuality was removed from the DSM in 1973.)
At the APA meeting in San Francisco in 2003, a case was presented that these along with sado-masochism and bestiality should be removed from the DSM since there is no longer a “baseline” for judging normal behavior.
However, it has been pointed out by opponents of this idea that sex/gender is determined in the DNA and is essentially unchangeable despite surgeries, hormone therapies and alternate lifestyles.

28. New Hate-Crimes Legislation
Gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation have been added to the list of protected categories/behaviors. The definition of these terms is unclear, permitting a broad interpretation.

29. What is sexuality? Sexuality is not a personality characteristic.
is not a level of biological drive.
is a choice of behaviors.

30. Heterosexual Choices
90% of people have had sexual intercourse by age 22
National Health & Social Life Survey (1994)
to 59 year olds
Partners are alike in age, ethnicity, education & religion
71% have only one sex partner per year
1/3 have sex up to twice a week; 1/3 a few times a month; 1/3 a few times a year

31. Heterosexual Behavior
Married people have the most frequent sex & most satisfying sex lives
Most popular activities intercourse, watching partner undress
75% men, 85% women not unfaithful
Men think about sex more
Michael & others, 1994

32. Sex and Relationships “Sex is a socially significant act.”
Self-concept
Future partners
Parents
Possible children
Affiliation: The need to belong

33. Why is sex best in an intimate relationship?
Physical and psychological intimacy influence each other.
Commitment is a safeguard.
A caring rather than a using partner.
Identity and relationship issues are important.

34. Sexuality - Adulthood
Sexual activity increases through the 20s and declines in the 30s.
80% of adults in committed relationships , and 88% in marriages report begin “extremely physically and emotionally satisfied.”
Only a few report persistent sexual problems

35. Unregulated Sexual Behavior
Unregulated sexual behavior is a problem for any society.
The problem is age/stage-related, in adolescence & young adulthood
Adolescents have the highest rates of STI’s all age groups, 1 in 6 per year;
One in six adults has an STI - National Center for Health Statistics, 2004

36. Cochran & Mays (1990) 20 % of men 4% of women
Indicated that they would lie to a potential sex partner about the results of a positive HIV test.

37. Adolescent Pregnancy
U.S. adolescent pregnancy rate is higher than that of most industrialized countries
40-45% of these end in abortion
75% to unmarried females
40% of all births are to unmarried mothers
Increased social acceptance
Belief that a baby will fill a void in life

38. Teenage Mothers Likely to be poor
High percentage are low-income, minorities
Tend to have limited education, poor school performance, etc.
Reduces likelihood of educational attainment
Reduces the chance of marriage
Increases the chances of economic disadvantage and welfare

39. Why so much irresponsible sex?
Christian apostasy/hypocrisy
Lack of clear cultural standards
religion, morality, social acceptability no longer reasons to say no
Internal conflict /Denial of consequences
ambivalent feelings; guilt
20% use no contraception
Social acceptability:
Many people believe it is OK
Conforming to the culture

40. Why so much irresponsible sex?
Lack of communication about birth control/sex
Alcohol & other drugs
“Romantic fog”

41. Why so much irresponsible sex?
Pressure
Media/TV – spontaneous passion should be acted upon; the 40-year-old Virgin
Subculture factors – to be “normal”
Peer pressure – to be acceptable
Date pressure – to be loved

42. We live in a sexually coercive society.
12% of American girls and 5% of boys say they were forced to have intercourse
Among those who had sex voluntarily, 25% said they really did not want to do so

43. Sexual Coercion
Estimated 13% of women have endured rape, legally defined as intercourse by force, by threat of harm, or when the victim is incapable of consent by reason of mental retardation, mental illness, or intoxication.
1998 college survey, 44% of women had experienced sexual coercion; 19% of men had obtained sex through force

44. Why is date rape a problem?
Because too many people think it isn’t.
Taking sex too lightly – no big deal
Pornography/Myths about women
Beliefs that women enjoy rape
Misreading friendliness
Assuming that refusal is part of the game

45. Sexual Coercion: The Cost
Psychological reactions to rape resemble those of trauma survivors
Shock Confusion
Withdrawal Chronic fatigue
Tension Disturbed sleep
Depression/Suicidal thoughts

46. Sexual Orientation: Not Genetically Determined
Identical twin concordance rate is about 50%
Inconsistency of preference
18% heterosexual boys, 6% girls report engaging in at least one homosexual act
Prisoners
Bisexuality
Other conditions of changing lifestyles

47. Homosexuals 2.7% men, 1.3% women No real evidence of biological basis
No clear indications of social, environmental correlates
May be an interaction of the two (nature-nurture question)
Factors in explanation
Biological plasticity
Social tolerance

48. New Statement from APA
“There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual, gay or lesbian orientation. Although much research has examined the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social and cultural influences on sexual orientation, no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or factors. Many think that nature and nurture both play complex roles. . . “
American Psychological Association