2. 1 Phonology Rules and Processes Phonetics gathers the raw material, phonemics [i.e. phonology] cooks it. (K. Pike, Phonemics, 1947, p. 57) Dutch 107

3. 2 Phonological rules  Represent a mapping, e.g. between phonemes (mental entities) and allophones (physical entities)  As such they express important patterns of the sound structure of a language  and are part of a speaker’s knowledge of his or her language

4. 3 Structure of Phonological Rules Phonemic form Rules Phonetic form

5. 4 An Example Data set 1: Where do we find [p h ], where [p] ? pin [p h ɪ n] spin [sp ɪ n] pine [p h ayn] spine [spayn] Conclusion:  /p/ is pronounced as (has the allophones) [p h ] at the beginning of a word [p] after [s]  Rule #1 (Aspiration 1) /p/  [p h ] / # __ ( / = ‘in the environment of’)  [p] / s __ (# = ‘word boundary’; #_ = word-initial)

6. 5 A Second Example Data set 2: Where do we find [t h ], where [t] ? tone [t h own] stone [stown] tine [t h ayn] stein [stayn] Conclusion:  /t/ is pronounced as (has the allophones) [t h ] at the beginning of a word [t] after [s]  Rule #2 (Aspiration 2) /t/  [t h ] / # __ (= word-initially)  [t] / s __

7. 6 A Third Example Data set 3: Where do we find [k h ], where [k] ? cone [k h own] scone [skown] cane [k h ejn] skein [skejn] Conclusion:  /k/ is pronounced as (has the allophones) [k h ] at the beginning of a word [k] after [s]  Rule #3 (Aspiration 3) /k/  [k h ] / # __ (= word-initially)  [k] / s __

8. 7 Can We Unify These Three Rules?  Are these three separate and unrelated rules, or do they have something in common?  What is common to /p/, /t/, and /k/? /p/:voiceless bilabial stop /t/:voiceless alveolar stop /k/:voiceless velar stop All are voiceless stops! /p/, /t/, and /k/ form a so-called natural class

9. 8 Natural Class A group of sounds in a language that share one or more articulatory or auditory properties, to the exclusion of all other sounds in that language Sound patterns in languages tend to pertain to natural classes (i.e. are regular, not idiosyncratic)

10. 9 Natural Class  Natural classes are defined by: the articulatory properties we have seen o for consonants: voicing, place of articulation, manner of articulation o for vowels: height, tongue advancement, lip rounding, tenseness

11. 10 Major Sound Classes  Natural classes can also be defined by the kind of airflow obstruction  There are two major classes of sounds here: Obstruents: produced with narrow constriction & obstruct airflow (stops, fricatives, affricates) Sonorants: produced with a relatively open vocal tract (vowels, glides, liquids, nasals)

12. 11 Distinctive Features  Each speech sound can be described as a set of distinctive features Examples: o [b] is a voiced, bilabial, oral plosive [+voice, +bilabial, +stop, –nasal] o [p] is a voiceless, bilabial, oral plosive [–voice, +bilabial, +stop, –nasal] o What speech sound is a voiceless alveolar fricative? /s/!

13. 12 Natural Classes  On the basis of the distinctive features sounds can be divided into natural classes with the same characteristics, e.g. the class of plosives (stops) the class of all voiced plosives the class of all voiceless fricatives  The same speech sound can belong to different natural classes, e.g. [t] belongs both to the class of voiceless sounds and to the class of stops, as well as to the class of obstruents

14. 13 The Pychological Reality of Features  Do adult language users know something about natural classes?  Yes, we see this in: Speech errors (D Versprekingen) Rules for the pronunciation of sounds that follow

15. 14 Speech Errors  In almost half of all speech errors there seems to be a confusion between sounds from the same natural class: transcedente medicatie (for meditatie) o The sounds /k/and /t/ both belong to the class of voiceless plosives hysterisch (for historisch) o /e/ and /o/ are both mid vowels  Our mental lexicon isn’t organized alphabetically, but in clusters on the basis of natural classes

16. 15 Mishearings: ‘Verluisteringen’  Some mishearings in pop songs Jimi Hendrix – Purple Haze Purple haze, all in my brain Lately, things just don ’ t seem the same Actin ’ funny, but I don ’ t know why ’scuse me while I … o Actual text: ‘Kiss the sky’ o Heard as ‘Kiss this guy’ o /k/ voiceless counterpart to /g/  aka mondegreen a mishearing or misinterpretation of a phrase as a result of near-homophony, in a way that gives it a new meaning. Website http://www.kissthisguy.comhttp://www.kissthisguy.com

17. 16 Mishearings: ‘Verluisteringen’ I look up at the sky And I see the clouds I look down at the ground And I see the rain go down the drain Fly away on Venga Airways Fly me high … sky Whoah! We’re going to … Whoah! Back to the island Whoah! We’re gonna have a party Whoah! In the Mediterranean Sea  Actual 1I look down at the ground 2I see the rain go down the drain 3‘Oh, we’re going to Ibiza’  Heard as 1I looked down at the ground 2I see the rainbow down the drain 3‘Oh, we’re going to eat pizza  What happened? 1‘lost’ sound recovered: how so? 2/b/ bilabial counterpart to velar /g/ 3/p/ voiceless counterpart to /b/ Vengaboys – We’re going to Ibiza

18. 17 What Sounds End Dutch Words?  What sounds can a Dutch word (not) end in? hond ‘dog’  [h ɔ nt] (NB: plural honden [h ɔ ndə(n)] ) rib ‘rib’  [r ɪ p] (NB: plural ribben [r ɪ bə(n)] ) muis ‘mouse ’  [mœys] (NB: plural muizen [mœyzə(n)] ) vijf ‘five’  [v ɛ if] (NB: plural vijven [v ɛ ivə(n)] ) plag ‘turf’  [plax] (NB: plural plaggen [pla ɣ ə(n)] )  What about the following? ( [ ̥ ] = voiceless) man ‘man’  [man], not * [man ̥ ] ! bom ‘bomb’  [b ɔ m], not * [b ɔ m ̥ ] ! tang ‘pliers’  [taŋ], not * [taŋ ̊ ] ! bal ‘ball’  [bal], not * [bal ̥ ] ! tor ‘beetle’  [t ɔ r], not * [t ɔ r ̥ ] !

19. 18 Phonological Rules  What sounds are affected? /b, d, ɣ, v, z/  What do they have in common? They are all voiced stops and fricatives They’re grouped together as o Voiced obstruents!

20. 19 Phonological Rules  What turns up instead of /b, d, ɣ, v, z/ ? /p, t, x, f, s/ How do they relate to the excluded sounds? o They’re the voiceless counterparts (voiceless obstruents)!  What sounds are not affected? /m, n, ŋ, l, r/  What do they have in common? They are all nasals and liquids They’re grouped together as o Sonorants (non-obstruent consonants)!

21. 20 Final Devoicing 1  The alternations /b~p, d~t, v~f, z~s, ɣ ~x/ (~: ‘alternates with’) are predictable by rule: word-final obstruents are voiceless in Dutch  The following rule of Final Devoicing (D Eindklankverscherping, G Auslautverhärtung) handles such cases: [–son]  [–voice] / __ # read as: ‘a nonsonorant (= obstruent) is/becomes voiceless in the environment before a word boundary (= at the end of a word)’

22. 21 Final Devoicing 2  The rule of Final Devoicing operates on final voiced obstruents and makes them voiceless. It works as follows: singularplural UR /h ɔ nd//h ɔ ndən/ FD h ɔ nt ------- PF h ɔ nt h ɔ ndən UR: underlying representation FD: Final Devoicing PF: Phonetic Form

23. 22 Types of Phonological Rules  There are several major types of phonological rules or processes: Assimilation: causes a sound to become more like a neighboring sound Dissimilation: causes a sound to become less like a neighboring sound Insertion: a segment not present at the phonemic level is inserted at the phonetic level Metathesis: the order of sounds is changed Strengthening (fortition): a sound is made stronger Weakening (lenition): a sound is made weaker Deletion: a sound is completely removed

24. 23 How Does /n/ Change Here? attent ‘attentive’ [at ɛ nt] onattent [ ɔ nat ɛ nt] echt‘genuine’ [ ɛ xt] onecht [ ɔ n ɛ xt] diep‘deep’ [dip] ondiep [ ɔ ndip] stabiel‘stable’ [stabi ɫ ] onstabiel [ ɔ nstabi ɫ ] rijp‘ripe’ [ ʀɛ ip] onrijp [ ɔ n ʀɛ ip] zeker‘sure’ [ze ː kə ɻ ] onzeker [ ɔ nze ː kə ɻ ] precies‘precise’ [pre ː sis] onprecies [ ɔ mpre ː sis] bekwaam ‘capable’ [bəkwa ː m] onbekwaam [ ɔ mbəkwa ː m] fris‘fresh’ [f ʀɪ s] onfris [ ɔɱ f ʀɪ s] veilig‘safe’ [v ɛ iləx] onveilig [ ɔɱ v ɛ iləx] kuis‘chaste’ [kœys] onkuis [ ɔ ŋkœys] gein‘fun’ [x ɛ in] ongein [ ɔ ŋx ɛ in] [ ɱ ] = labiodental nasal

25. 24 Homorganic Nasal Assimilation  We find: n / __ V, d, s, r, z (V = vowel) m / __ p, b ɱ / __ f, v ŋ / __ k, x  The nasal takes on the same point of articulation as the following sound: it becomes homorganic on + precies  [ ɔ mpre ː sis]  The assimilation is regressive: the assimilation goes back from the following segment bilabial labiodental velar

26. 25 Assimilation: Two Sounds Become More Alike  Regressive Assimilation Assimilation in which the following sound influences the preceding segment, e.g. o indefinite, impossible, incomplete [ŋk]  Progressive Assimilation Assimilation in which the preceding sound influences the following segment, e.g. o books [ks], bags [gz]

27. 26 How Does /n/ Change Here? net‘tidy’ [n ɛ t] onnet [ ɔ n ɛ t]] nodig‘necessary’ [no ː dəx] onnodig [ ɔ no ː dəx] nederlands‘Dutch’ [ne ː derlands] onnederlands [ ɔ ne ː derlands] noembaar‘nameable’ [numba ːɻ ] onnoembaar [ ɔ numba ːɻ ] mogelijk ‘possible’ [mo ː xələk] onmogelijk [ ɔ mo ː xələk] misbaar‘dispensable’ [m ɪ zba ːɻ ] onmisbaar [ ɔ m ɪ zba ːɻ ] matig‘moderate’ [ma ː təx] onmatig [ ɔ ma ː təx] middellijk‘indirect’ [m ɪ dələk] onmiddellijk [ ɔ m ɪ dələk] mondig‘emancipated’ [m ɔ ndəx] onmondig [ ɔ m ɔ ndəx] Degemination: n+n  n Assimilation > Degemination: n+m  mm  m

28. 27 Notes on Phonological Rules  As we see here: More than one rule can apply to a phonemic form to produce a phonetic form  Moreover, some rules are obligatory; others are optional Nasal assimilation can sometimes be suspended, e.g. in careful speech

29. 28 Voicing in Consonant Clusters 1 opvallend‘remarkable’/pv/[pf] stoepzout‘street salt’/pz/ [ps] zoutvat‘salt vat’/tv/ [tf] zoutzuur‘hydrochl. acid’/tz/ [ts] dakvenster‘roof window’/kv/ [kf] dakgoot‘roof gutter’/k ɣ / [kx] afval‘rubbish’/fv/ [f] afzuigen‘to extract’/fz/ [fs] asvat‘ash bin’/sv/ [sf] waszak‘laundry bag’/sz/ [s] lachzak‘laugher’/xz/ [xs] lachgas‘laughing gas’/x ɣ / [x ] What regularities do we see here? 1. What kind of process? Voicing assimilation 2. What direction? Progressive (left > right) 3. What conditions it? Fricative devoiced after a voiceless obstruent 4. What else happens? Geminates arising from voicing assimilation are degeminated Progressive Voicing Assimilation

30. 29 Voicing in Consonant Clusters 2 opdruk‘imprint’ /pd/ [bd] eetbaar‘edible’ /tb/ [db] kookboek‘cookbook’ /kb/ [gb] zakdoek‘handkerchief’ /kd/ [gd] afbellen‘to ring off’ /fb/ [vb] stofdoek‘dust cloth’ /fd/ [vd] kasboek‘cash book’ /sb/ [zb] misdaad‘misdeed, crime’ /sd/ [zd] lachbui‘fit of laughter’ /xb/ [ ɣ b] lachduif‘laugher’ /xd/ [ ɣ d] klapband‘flat tire’ /pb/ [b] potdicht‘tight’ /td/ [d] What regularities do we see here? 1. What kind of process? Voicing assimilation 2. What direction? Regressive (right > left) 3. What conditions it? Obstruents voiced before a voiced stop 4. What else happens? Geminates arising from voicing assimilation are degeminated Regressive Voicing Assimilation (+ Degemination)

31. 30 Coarticulation vs. Assimilation  Coarticulation is obligatory (try not doing it!) only changes phones into other allophones of the same phoneme only occurs within words, and it never affects meaning  Assimilation is optional changes phones to new phonemes can occur at word boundaries and can neutralize meaning contrasts

32. 31 What Happens Here? Positive Comparative vet‘fat’ /v ɛ t/ vetter /v ɛ tər/ edel‘noble’ /e ː dəl/ edeler /e ː dələr/ groen‘green’ /xrun/ groener/ xrunər/ raak‘telling’ /ra ː k/ raker /ra ː kər/ suf‘dazed’ /s ɵ f/ suffer /s ɵ fər/ but raar ‘rare’ /ra ː r/ raarder /ra ː rdər/ zuur‘sour’ /zu ː r/ zuurder /zu ː rdər/ ver‘far’ /v ɛ r/ verder /v ɛ rdər/ zeker‘sure’ /ze ː kər/ zekerder /ze ː kərdər/ d is inserted between r and -´r : Epenthesis This also happens with agent nouns: huren ‘ to rent ’  huurder ‘ renter’ /hu ː rdər/

33. 32 What Happens Here? FullReduced broeder ‘brother’ /brudər/ broer /brur/ weder ‘again’ / ʋ e ː dər/ weer /ve ː r/ neder ‘nether’ /ne ː dər/ neer /ne ː r/ teder ‘tender’ /te ː dər/ teer /te ː r/ voeder ‘fodder’ /vudərr/ voer /vur/ ledig ‘empty’ /le ː dəx/ leeg /le ː x/ And here? lade ‘drawer’ /la ː də/ la /la ː / slede ‘sled’ /sle ː də/s lee /sle ː / zijde ‘silk; side’ /z ɛ idə/ zij /z ɛ i/ heide ‘heath’ /h ɛ idə/ hei /h ɛ i/ koude ‘cold (n.)’ /kaudə/ kou /kau/ salade ‘salad’ /sala ː də/s la /sla ː / ( cf. E coleslaw < D koolsla) chocolade ‘chocolate’ / ɕɔ k ɔ la ː də/ / ɕɔ k ɔ la ː / final d´ is deleted after long/tense vowel: Deletion/Weakening medial d´ is deleted after long/tense vowel: Deletion/Weakening

34. 33 What Happens Here? PositiveCarefulCasual dode‘dead’ [do ː də][do ː jə] rode‘red’ [ ʀ o ː də] [ ʀ o ː jə] goede‘good’ [xudə][xujə] e.g. Goeie morge! kwade‘angry’ [k ʋ a ː də][k ʋ a ː jə] rijden‘to ride’ [ ʀɛ idə(n)][ ʀɛ ijə(n)] glijden‘to glide’ [xl ɛ idə(n)][xl ɛ ijə(n)] oude‘old’ [audə][auwə] koude ‘cold (adj.)’ [kaudə][kauwə] houden‘hold’ [haudə][hauwə] gouden‘golden’ [xaudə][xauwə] ouwehoeren ‘ chatter ’ [auwəhu ʀ ə]/*[audəhu ʀ ə] d is weakened to j/w word-medially before ´ : Weakening/Lenition

35. 34 D-Weakening: An Example Dooie Mus by Robert Long Maar hoe je ’t ook beziet Leuk of niet Het leven is gewoon een dooie (= dode) mus But however you view it Nice or not (The) life is just a dead sparrow (= worthless nothing)

36. 35 What Happens Here? CarefulCasual roepen‘to call’ [ ʀ upən][ ʀ upə] werken‘to work’ [ ʋɛ rkən][ ʋɛ rkə] groeien‘to grow’ [x ʀ ujən][x ʀ ujə] weten‘to know’ [ ʋ e ː tən][ ʋ e ː tə] zeggen‘to say’ [z ɛ xən][z ɛ xə] but zien ‘to see’ [zi ː n]*[zi ː ] (as inf.; ok as imp.) staan‘to stand’ [sta ː n]*[sta ː ] (as inf.; ok as imp.) zijn‘to be’ [z ɛ in]*[zei] (as inf.; ok as imp.) doen‘to do’ [dun]*[du] (as inf.; ok as imp.) n is deleted word-finally after -ə: Deletion/Weakening This also happens elsewhere, e.g. with noun plurals: dagen ‘days’ [da ːɣ ən]  [da ːɣ ə]/ [da ː xə]

37. Wil je dansen, Roselinde, wil je dansen heel de nacht? Kom, mijn liefste, mijn beminde, hierop heb ik lang gewacht. Laat mij jou de liefde leren, laat ons niet meer wacht want Morgen moet ik gaan marcheren voor het lieve vaderland.2x Maar ik durf niet te dansen, mijn liefste, de nacht is zo duister en koud. En ik hoor vier ruiters rijden daar buiten door ‘t donkere woud. Ze komen op magere paarden, ze hebben geen haast en geen tijd. Ach waarom zijn ze gekomen? Ik wil er mijn liefste niet kwijt. 36 Do you want to dance, Roselinde, do you want to dance all night? Come, my dearest, my beloved I’ve long waited for this. Let me teach you love Let’s not wait any more because Tomorrow I must go marching for the dear fatherland. But I don’t dare dance, my dearest the night is so dark and cold And I hear four riders riding Out there through the dark woods They come on scrawny horses They know no haste and no time Oh, why have they come? I don’t want to lose my dearest.

38. Laten we een afspraak maken: als ik jou aanraak mag je mij aanraken, Als ik jou bekijk mag je mij bekijken. Maar als je mij ontwijkt, dan zal ik jou ontwijken. Laten we ons niet vergissen. Als ik jou mis moet je mij maar missen, en als jij niet klaagt dan zal ik ook niet klagen. Als je mij verdraagt, dan zal ik jou verdragen. Want ik ben ik, en jij bent jij, tenminste een van ons is vrij, gelukkig viel het lot op mij.2x 37 Let’s make a deal/pact if I touch you, you can touch me if I look at you, you can look at me but if you avoid me, I’ll avoid you. Let’s not make any mistake if I miss you you have to miss me and if you don’t complain then I won’t complain if you get along with me, I’ll get along with you. Because I’m me and you’re you at least one of us is free fortunately the lot/fate fell on my

39. 38 A ‘Minor Rule’: Open Syllable Lengthening D-weakening is not completely regular: it has many exceptions, word for word (lexical exceptions). The same is true of “Open Syllable Lengthening”, which was once a productive rule, but is now only a “minor rule”, found only in a few cases: SingularPlural schip‘ship’ [sx ɪ p] schepen [sxe ː pə(n)] lid‘member’ [l ɪ t] leden [le ː də(n)] god‘god’ [x ɔ t] goden [xo ː də(n)] lof‘praise’ [l ɔ f]loven[lo ː və(n)] spel‘game’ [sp ɛ l]spelen[spe ː lə(n)] dag‘day’ [d ɑ x]dagen[da ːɣ ə(n)] bad‘bath’ [b ɑ t]baden[ba ː də(n)] stad‘city’ [st ɑ t]steden[ste ː də(n)] Vowel is lengthened in open syllable (not closed by C).

40. 39 Some Common Phonological Processes in Review  Assimilation  Dissimilation  Deletion  Epenthesis  Strengthening (aka Fortition)  Weakening (reduction; aka Lenition)

41. Sound System  The set of all phonemes of a language (phoneme inventory) constitutes (part of) its sound system  There are (allophonic) rules for non-distinctive (often redundant, predictable) features of phonemes  There are also rules that describe phonological processes They spell out phonological changes in morphemes when they are joined (morphophonemic rules)  In addition there are rules for the combination of phonemes and syllable structure (phonotactics) 40