1. Phonology & Phonotactics
Co-Articulation Effects

2. Phoneme = meaning distinguishing sounds in a language (the sounds we hear in our minds)
Allophone = different versions of the same phoneme (sounds we make with our mouths) Ex: /spæt/ vs. / phæt/
Broad transcriptions use the main phoneme for all allophonic variations that do not affect meaning
Some Terms

3. Phonotactic Constraints
Sounds are not uttered in isolation from one another, and each language has its own “phonotactic constraints”: sounds or syllables which can or cannot be made.
Ex: /nd/ can be a consonant blend at the end of a syllable in English, but not at the beginning of a syllable in English.
Ex: regular verbs which end in a voiceless consonant form the simple past with a /t/ as /wɔlkt/ walked
Regular verbs which end in a voiced sound other than /t/ or /d/ form the simple past with /d/ as /slɪmd/ slimmed
Regular verbs which end in /t/ or /d/ form the simple past with /əd/ as in /plɑdəd/ plodded or /plɑɾəd/
Phonotactic Constraints

4. Similar Phonotactic Constraints
Nouns form regular plurals under similar constraints
Nouns that end in a voiceless consonant such as /p/ form plurals with voiceless /s/
For example: caps /kæps/
Nouns that end with voiced sounds (not stridents) such as /w/ form plurals with voiced /z/
For example: bows and arrows /bowz/ /æɹowz/
Nouns that end with stridents: /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ /ʧ/ /ʤ/ form plurals in /əz/
For example: churches /ʧʌɹʧəz/
Similar Phonotactic Constraints

5. Co-articulation effects
Assimilation occurs when two sound segments are spoken in sequence and one copies or affects the other.
Ex: voiceless labiodental in wolf becomes voiced in the plural b/c of the preceding liquid and vowel and is wolves
Ex: every vowel in English pronounced before a nasal becomes nasalized (mark with tilda ˜)
contrast back /bæk/and bank /bǣŋk/
Note also that nasals in front of velar stops /k/ and /g/ become assimilated and become velar nasals
Ring is /ɹIŋ/ -- and the I would be marked with a ˜
Co-articulation effects

6. Other voicing assimilations
Liquids /l/ and /ɹ/ that followed voiceless stops /p/ /t/ and /k/ are normally de- voiced.
plot or pray or train or clean or creed and contrasted to blot or bray or drain or glean or greed
/pl̥ɑt/ vs. /blɑt/ and /kɹ̥id/ vs /gɹid/
Other voicing assimilations

7. Some sounds are affected by nearby sounds, and move to a closer position in the mouth to assimilate to those sounds.
Ex: the prefix “in” that negates becomes “im” in front of a bilabial:
impossible or immmaterial
And remains as “in” in front of dental and alveolar and palatal consonants:
invalid or infallible or intolerable or indubitably or insolvable or innocent or injurious
For some speakers “in” will sound /Iŋ/ in front of a velar stop
ingrate or incoherent
Place assimilation

8. Flapping as assimilation
Flapping – medial /t/ or /d/ is changed to /ɾ/ in casual speech and two different assimilations may take place
(1) type of articulation assimilation. A flap always changes a noncontinuent (a stop) into a continuent (flaps are continuents) when that stop is surrounded by two vowels (also continuents)
(2) voicing assimilation. A flap always occurs between two vowels – vowels are voiced – and the unvoiced stop /t/ becomes the voiced /ɾ/
Flapping as assimilation

9. Elision occurs when a sound is omitted in casual speech
Ex: suppose as /spowz/
Ex: parade as /pɹ̥ejd/
Note also that the voiceless stop /p/ has devoiced the liquid /ɹ/ to /ɹ̥/
Dissimilation can rarely occur when sounds are deleted b/c there are too many similar sounds in a row
Ex: three fifths in careful speech /Ɵɹi fIfƟs/ becomes /Ɵɹi fIfts/
Deletion or elision

10. Epenthesis and Metathesis
In epenthesis, a sound is inserted that makes it easier to transition between two dissimilar sounds.
Ex: sonorant nasal to nonsonorant fricative has insertion of nonsonorant stop articulated in the same place
warmth with /p/ inserted between /m/ and /Ɵ/ (same place in mouth as /m/ and same voicelessness and nonsonorantness as / /Ɵ/
prince with /t/ inserted between /n/ and /s/
In metathesis, sound elements are re- ordered
Ex: a child who cannot say “spaghetti” re-orders the sounds to /pIskεti/
Epenthesis and Metathesis