Introduction to public speaking

Introduction to public speaking
An Elective Course

Ice breaker activity – Welcome to public speaking
Green – Talk about something that you enjoy reading? (Book, magazine, etc.) What do you like about it? Yellow – Talk about an accomplishment that makes you proud. How did you accomplish this, and why was it so important to you? Strawberry - What do you plan to do following graduation? How are you going to accomplish this? Cherry - What would be your “dream job”? Why? How do you plan on getting this job? 2 pieces: Green and yellow - What is your favorite school subject? Why? 2 pieces: Red and green - What do you like to do the most with your free time? Elaborate 2 pieces: Red and yellow – Name your favorite vacation spot. What do you like about it? What do you do their? 2 pieces: Red and Red – Discuss your summer in detail.

Ice breaker activity #2 Introduction Speech: A short “who I am” speech (1-2 minutes) to help break the ice and foster community

Food for thought https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQ6giVKp9ec
Research shows that more people are afraid of public speaking than they are of death. “According to Jerry Seinfeld this means that more people would rather be in the casket than giving the eulogy at a funeral.” Public speaking has been formally taught for thousands of years. Speakers are not born effective, they make themselves effective. Your only goal is to make sure that the audience understands and remembers your speech.

Benefits of public speaking
According to the Association of American Colleges and Universities, there are a core set of skills that are necessary “both for a globally engaged democracy and for a dynamic innovation fueled economy” (Rhodes, 2010, p. 10). In the category of “Intellectual and practical skills” public speaking is listed as one of these core skills. Communication skills are critical for intellectual development, career trajectory, and civic engagement. Public speaking is universally applicable to all types of majors and occupations and is seen by U.S. employers as a critical employability skill for job seekers (Rockler-Gladen, 2009; U.S. Department of Labor, 2000).

Personal benefits of public speaking
ORG90w We are sometimes called upon to give speeches in our personal lives: Toast at a wedding, Eulogy, Introduce a guest speaker or accept an award. Public speaking builds self-confidence.

Professional benefits of public speaking
It is believed 70% of jobs today involve some form of public speaking (Aras, 2012). With the recent economic shift from manufacturing to service careers, the ability to communicate with others has become crucial. Leaders must be able to communicate ideas effectively, they must be able to persuade, build support, negotiate and speak effectively in public (Farrell, 2011).

Professional benefits of public speaking cont.
Effective speaking skills make you more attractive to employers, enhancing your chances of securing employment and later advancing within your career. Employers, career counselors, and the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) all list good communication skills at the top of the list of qualities sought in potential employees. Monster.com advises, “articulating thoughts clearly and concisely will make a difference in both a job interview and subsequent job performance” (McKay, 2005).

Public benefits of public speaking
Public speaking is important in creating and sustaining a society, which includes informed, active participants. Learning about public speaking helps you to listen more carefully to and critically evaluate other’s speeches. Listening and critical thinking allow you to understand public dilemmas, form an opinion about them, and participate in resolving them.

Speech anxiety *Give the students pg of “Public Speaking Guidelines” Remember…public speaking is the #1 fear in America…YOU ARE NOT ALONE!! The symptoms of speech anxiety are a result of a stressful situation. They symptoms that you experience are identical to those you experience when your body goes into “fight or flight.” Your body reacts the same when confronted with a grizzly bear and a speech. Speech anxiety can actually help you become more focused on giving a better speech. The symptoms are your body’s way of preparing to give a top performance.

Understanding the symptoms of speech anxiety
Butterflies in the stomach: To prepare you for fighting or running away, as much energy as possible is needed in your arms and legs. Digestion is of low priority now. Any food you have eaten just sits in your stomach and creates the queasy feeling we call “butterflies.” Dry Mouth: Likewise, saliva production stops, resulting in a feeling of dryness in your mouth. Rapid Breathing: In preparation for the expected physical effort, your rate of breath increases to supply your body with extra oxygen. Rapid Heart Rate: To transport the oxygen through your body, your heart starts beating faster. Perspiration: The heightened circulation in your body makes you feel hot. Your body starts to sweat in order to decrease your body temperature. Trembling Hands, Weak Knees, Unsteady Voice: The muscles in your body are under tension. If you fight or run away, this tension is released through action. If you stand still, the tension manifests itself in trembling hands and weak knees.

Alleviating speech anxiety symptoms
Days/Weeks Before the Speech Put the situation in perspective. Remind yourself that you’ve been talking to people all your life. Select a topic that interests and excites you. You will be more focused on the topic than your fears. Research your topic well. Nothing helps reduce anxiety better than thorough preparation. Plan your opening carefully. Nervousness is at its peak at the beginning of a presentation. A well-prepared introduction will help calm you down and build your confidence for the rest of your speech. Imagine that you are giving your speech first to one person, then two people, then five, and finally to the whole audience. Don’t forget to rehearse gestures and body movements. Don’t force them, but let them become an integral part of your presentation. Check out the room in which you will deliver your speech and determine the best location for visual aids. Practice, practice, practice!

Alleviating speech anxiety symptoms Cont.
The Night Before/The Day of the Speech Try to get a good night’s sleep before your speech so that you are physically and mentally rested and at your best. Explain to yourself what’s happening to your body. Remember that the symptoms you are experiencing (butterflies, dry mouth, etc.) are your body’s ways of helping you through stressful situations. Burn up excess energy. Relieve the tension in your muscles by getting off the bus a stop early, walking around the block, or taking the stairs rather than the elevator. Practice relaxation exercises. Close your eyes and focus on your breathing. Breathe deeply and slowly. Tense and then relax your muscles, starting with your toes and working up to your neck and face. Identify negative self-talk (e.g., “My audience will be bored.”) and replace it with positive messages (e.g., “My speech is important and interesting.”). Have a positive attitude toward your listeners. Assume that they will be supportive and attentive. Expect that they understand the speechmaking process and will be helpful. They know just how you feel! Visualize success. Imagine that you are part of the audience and watch yourself deliver your speech competently and with confidence, If you think you can do it, you can do it.

Right Before, During, and After Your Speech: Take a few deep breaths. Act with confidence and you will feel that way. Show your listeners a confident speaker communicating well-researched and carefully prepared ideas. Focus on your message, not yourself. Don’t talk about your speech to your audience (e.g., don’t say “I hope you will like my presentation.”), and never ask for sympathy (e.g., don’t say “I’m nervous” or “I’m scared”). Remember that your audience is with you and wants you to succeed. Pause before you speak. Gather your thoughts, make eye contact, and start with conviction. Don’t be afraid to smile—the audience will smile back! Use energy while you talk. Employ gestures and utilize the space provided by moving around just a bit. But keep in mind that too many gestures and movements may be distracting; so be aware and move naturally. Use visual aids. They create interest and make you feel less self-conscious because they help the audience to focus on something besides you. Make eye contact with all parts of your audience, but also search for friendly faces. They can provide an anchor of reassurance throughout your speech.

Right Before, During, and After Your Speech Cont.: If you make a mistake, it is not the end of the world! Most mistakes are not even noticed by the audience. Pause before your conclusion, and then present the rest of your speech with special emphasis. Don’t end with a statement that expresses relief (e.g., “I made it.) or disappointment (e.g., “This was not very good.”). The focus should remain on your message, not on yourself. Don’t go back to your seat immediately after your speech. Accept applause, invite questions, and thank the audience for their interest.

Alleviating Speech anxiety symptoms cont.
Factors that Cause Apprehension: New and different situations will make you anxious. So, gaining as much experience in public speaking as you can (making it less new and different) will lessen your anxiety. Learning to speak in public is similar to learning to drive a car or ski down a mountain. With experience the initial fears and anxieties give way to feelings of control, comfort, and pleasure. Try to reduce the newness of the situation by familiarizing yourself with the public speaking context. For example, try to rehearse in the room in which you will give your speech. Or stand in the front of the room before the actual presentation, as if you were giving your speech.

Alleviating speech anxiety symptoms cont.
Factors that Cause Apprehension: When you see yourself as having subordinate status, such as when you feel that others are better speakers or that they know more than you do, your anxiety increases Think positively about yourself. Fear increases when you feel that the audience’s expectations are very high (Ayres, 1986). Maintain realistic expectations

Factors that Cause Apprehension: When you’re the center of attention, as you normally are in public speaking, you feel conspicuous and your anxiety increases. Therefore, try thinking of public speaking as a type of conversation (some theorists call it “enlarged conversation”).

Factors that Cause Apprehension: When you feel you lack similarity with your audience, you may feel that your audience doesn’t empathize with you and so you may become anxious. Try emphasizing the commonalities you share with your listeners as you plan your speech as well as during the actual presentation. If you have a prior history of apprehension, you’re more likely to dwell on such past experiences and become even more anxious. Your positive public speaking experiences in this class will help reduce this cause of anxiety

Performance Visualization: designed to reduce outward signs of apprehension, as well as negative thinking. Develop a positive attitude and self-perception. Avoid self-destructive statements. Focus on self-affirming statements. Visualize yourself walking to the front of the room—fully and totally confident, fully in control of the situation. Model yourself after an effective speaker. There are no lack of examples in movies, on YouTube, etc.

Systematic Desensitization: a technique used for dealing with a variety of fears. 5. Giving a speech in class 4. Introducing another speaker to the class 3. Speaking in a group in front of the class 2. Answering a question in class 1. Asking a question in class

The linear model of communication
The first theoretical model of communication was proposed in 1949 by Shannon and Weaver for Bell Laboratories (Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Part 1 – The sender, or the person speaking. Part 2 – The channel, the apparatus for carrying the message (phone, television, etc.) Part 3 – The receiver, the person picking up the message. This model is inadequate.

The transactional Model of communication
One of the most useful models for understanding communication. Communication is seen as an ongoing, circular process. We are constantly affecting and are affected by those we communicate with.

Elements of the communication process
Encoding: refers to the process of taking an idea or mental image, associating that image with words, and then speaking those words to convey a message. Decoding: the reverse process of listening to words, thinking about them, and turning those words into mental images.

Elements of the communication process cont.
Ethics: since your speech will have an effect on your audience, you have an obligation to consider the moral implications of your message. Communicator: refers to all of the people in the interaction or speech setting. When we speak we observe nonverbal behavior to see if people understand; we also use nonverbal behavior to gauge emotional states. We listen for paralinguistic cues (pitch, tone, volume, fillers, etc.) If audience members are interested or agree they may nod their heads, lean forward in their seats, provide favorable vocal cues. If audience members disagree or are confused by your speech they may text, shake their heads, present oppositional vocal cues. Feedback: refers to the information gained from these observations. Therefore communication is a give and take process (transactional).

Message: involves those verbal and nonverbal behaviors, enacted by communicators, that are interpreted with meaning by others. The verbal portion refers to the words we speak. The nonverbal portion includes our tone, personal appearance, posture, gestures, eye movement, even the way we smell. If there is ever a conflict between the verbal and the nonverbal portion of a message…people generally believe the nonverbal portion (resting B**ch face) The message can also be intentional or unintentional (think about conversations with your significant other or your parents).

Channel: the means through which the message travels. 5 senses (when we are face to face), online, texting, telephone, television The channel effects the interpretation. Listening to a recording of a speech does not have the same psychological impact as watching a speech. Kennedy vs. Nixon in the 1960 televised debate. 70% of those who watched the speech thought Kennedy won, while most people who listened to the radio thought Nixon won.

Delivery: in conversation you do not usually concern yourself with how you deliver your message. However public speaking is different. For now, view public speaking as an “enlarged conversation.” In your early efforts concentrate on content, and as you become more confident you can direct your attention to your delivery skills (such as what to do with your hands, etc.). Noise: refers to anything that interferes with message transmission or reception. Physiological Noise: sick, hungry, hot, cold. Psychological Noise: mental or emotional states. Physical Noise: actual sound level in a room. Cultural Noise: differences in people’s worldviews.

Worldview: the overall framework through which an individual sees, thinks about, and interprets the world and interacts with it. Epistemology: the way we acquire knowledge, learning styles. Ontology: belief systems Axiology: our value system (right and wrong, good and bad, fair and unfair). Cosmology: signifies the way that we see our relationship to the universe and to other people. May involve spiritual and religious beliefs. Praxeology: denotes our preferred method of completing everyday tasks Never take communication for granted, and never assume that an audience will understand you.

Culture, gender, and public speaking
Cultural differences span the entire public speaking spectrum—from the way you use eye contact to the way you develop an argument or present criticism (Chang & Holt, 1996). Culture is the collection of beliefs, attitudes, values, and ways of behaving shared by a group of people and passed down from one generation to the next through communication rather than through genes. The Kansas farmer may have more in common with a Chinese farmer as opposed to a Wall Street Executive. Gender can be considered a cultural variable largely because cultures teach boys and girls different attitudes, beliefs, values, and ways of communicating and relating to one another

Art critic Students will be provided with a piece of abstract art. Each student will then present an interpretation of the piece to the class to demonstrate the ways in which different people both communicate and interpret information.

10 points for time (3 minutes) 10 points for professionalism
PABLO PICASSO ( ) 'Weeping Woman', 1937 (oil on canvas) Please provide a 3 minute interpretation of this piece of abstract art. 10 points for time (3 minutes) 10 points for professionalism

Context: refers to the norms that govern communication in different situations and relationships. Physical: the actual place you give your speech. Socio-physiological: the relationship between the speaker and the audience. Temporal: the time of day, and where your speech fits into the sequence of events. Cultural: refers to the beliefs, lifestyles, values, and behaviors that the speaker and the audience bring with them and that bear on the topic and purpose of the speech.

Instant replay As in a sports’ broadcast, students will prepare and present a short scene demonstrating the communication process in small groups. They will perform it through once without interruption. Then, they will do a replay with commentary, stopping at planned moments.

Analyze your audience Your audience is central to your topic and purpose. Your success in informing or persuading an audience rests largely on the extent to which you know them and the extent to which you’ve adapted your speech to them. Ask yourself: Who are they, what do they already know, what would they want to know more about, what special interests do they have, what opinions, attitudes or beliefs do they have, where do they stand on the issues you are addressing, what are their needs?

Know your audience In pairs, students will present two 1- minute conversations on the same topic, first as high school peers and then as a high school student with a grandparent, to demonstrate how we alter our speech depending on our audience.

Language and meaning Colloquialisms: is a word, phrase or other form used in informal language. (go nuts or bonkers) Clichés: an expression or idea which has become overused to the point of losing its original meaning or intended effect. (its raining cats and dogs) Euphemisms: a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing. (he went to a better place). Doublespeak: is language that deliberately disguises, distorts, or reverses the meaning of words. (the company is downsizing)…often similar to euphemisms. Slang: informal language…similar to colloquialisms (yinz, buggy, gum band) Jargon: is a type of language that is used in a particular context and may not be well understood outside of it. (soccer jargon: turn, back, through, overlap) Regionalism: a linguistic feature peculiar to a particular region and not part of the standard language of a country. (yinz, buggy, gum band y’all).

What did you say? The students will give a 4 minute speech on any topic using as many colloquialisms, clichés, euphemisms, slang, jargon, etc. as possible. The student that uses the most colloquialisms will receive extra credit.

Non-verbal communication
The nonverbal portion includes our tone, personal appearance, posture, gestures, eye movement, even the way we smell. If there is ever a conflict between the verbal and the nonverbal portion of a message…people generally believe the nonverbal portion (resting B**ch face) Kennedy vs. Nixon in the 1960 televised debate. 70% of those who watched the speech thought Kennedy won, while most people who listened to the radio thought Nixon won.

gesturing Don’t put your hands in your pockets or lock them behind your back. This will prevent you from gesturing freely. Likewise, don’t clasp your notes or hold on to the lectern. In fact, if possible, don’t use a lectern at all. Not only do lecterns tempt speakers to use fewer or no gestures, lecterns also place a physical barrier between the speaker and the audience and therefore create a feeling of distance and disengagement. Don’t fold your arms. This communicates closedness rather than openness and will disconnect you from the audience. In general, people who use their hands for gesturing appear more open and honest to the audience. Gestures should therefore be an integral part of your speech. Gestures should be conscious and purposeful. Don’t use too few or too many gestures. Aim for a medium amount and use them in a natural manner. Vary your gestures. Anything overly repetitive distracts the audience. Avoid nervous mannerism such as twisting your hair, scratching your face, rubbing your hands together, or playing with an object (e.g., a pen, your necklace, an earring). Remember that gestures should strengthen your verbal message. Mannerisms don’t. Consider which gestures to use before your speech and practice them during rehearsal.

Gestures cont. Examples:
When counting (e.g., first, second, third), don’t just say the numbers, also indicate them with the use of your fingers. When discussing measurements (e.g., three feet), use your arms to show the length. When using phrases like “on one hand on the other hand,” support your words by first turning one palm up, then the other. Phrases such as “we don’t know whether “ can be visualized by a shoulder shrug. Think of gestures that would be appropriate for the following statements: “This affects all of us,” “We have to stop immediately,” “ This machine is powered by a tiny battery.”

Body posture and movements
A powerful speaker shows confidence through body posture and movement. There are some occasions where a speaker may sit while delivering a speech (e.g., during a business meeting); in most cases, however, standing will be more effective. When you stand, adopt a comfortable pose and use the space provided effectively. If you have room to move around, do so. You may want to walk toward the audience during a crucial point in your speech, for example, or step back right before your conclusion. As with gesturing, use your movements consciously and don’t overdo them. A speaker who paces back and forth in front of an audience tends to confuse rather than enlighten.

Tips for nonnative speakers
Nonverbal behavior differs from culture to culture. Direct eye contact is considered rude in some cultures, for example. Speakers in these cultures may instead look at listeners’ foreheads or divert their eyes altogether.

Silent movie Students will create a short (3 minute) silent-movie scene to demonstrate nonverbal communication. No vocal utterances (talking or otherwise) or use of text will be permitted. Therefore, facial expressions, hand gestures, and body movements are required to convey meaning. Use of a “silent movie soundtrack” (ie. music without lyrics) is okay.

Vocal behavior Pitch/Inflection: Variation in pitch is a tool for stressing words and adding emotion to 25 sentences. When utterances are flat and monotone (i.e., when the pitch range is too narrow), listeners become bored and tune out. Rate: The rate of speech includes speed and pausing. As with pitch, try to vary your rate throughout your speech. You may want to speak more slowly at the beginning of your speech, for instance, to give your listeners an opportunity to get used to your voice. You may also want to slow down when discussing important points. It is very important not to speak too fast. (a normal rates is approximately 125 words per minute). Use intentional pauses to stress main points. Volume: Make sure that everybody in the audience can hear you without straining. To project your voice effectively, it helps to direct it to the person sitting farthest away from you. Pronunciation: PRACTICE!!! When you mispronounce words you lose credibility with your audience.

Vocal behavior practice
“Say it Right” “Did You Say That?”

Active listening Prepare with a positive, engaged attitude
Focus your attention on the subject Stop all non-relevant activities beforehand to orient yourself to the speaker or the topic Review mentally what you already know about the subject Organize in advance relevant material in order to develop it further (previous lectures, TV programs, newspaper articles, web sites, prior real life experience, etc.) Avoid distractions Seat yourself appropriately close to the speaker Avoid distractions (a window, a talkative neighbor, noise, etc.) Acknowledge any emotional state Suspend emotions until later, or Passively participate unless you can control your emotions Set aside your prejudices, your opinions You are present to learn what

Active listening Actively listen
Be other-directed; focus on the person communicating Follow and understand the speaker as if you were walking in their shoes Listen with your ears but also with your eyes and other senses Be aware: non-verbally acknowledge points in the speech Let the argument or presentation run its course Don't agree or disagree, but encourage the train of thought Be involved: Actively respond to questions and directions Use your body position (e.g. lean forward) and attention to encourage the speaker and signal your interest. TAKE NOTES

Active listening Follow up activities
One-to-one Give the speaker time and space for rest after talking Express appreciation for the sharing to build trust and encourage dialogue Check if you have understood Restate key points to affirm your understanding & build dialogue Summarize key points to affirm your understanding & build dialogue Ask (non-threatening) questions to build understanding Continue dialogue: Reflect on your experience to demonstrate your interest (feedback) Interpret after you feel you have grasped content Apply what you have learned to a new situation In a group or audience give the speaker space to regroup, to debrief after talking

Active listening During Q & A If posing a question
Quickly express appreciation Briefly summarize a preliminary point Ask the relevant question If making a point Briefly restate the relevant idea as presented State your idea, interpretation, reflection Invite a response Continued development Get contact information for later reference Invite friends/colleagues/etc. for discussion afterward Write out a summary with questions for further review

Active listening activity
Rather than speaking, students will listen to a speech which will be paused periodically, at which time they will be asked to respond to a question relating to the content of the previous section. This assignment is designed to make students aware of the integral value of active listening. Robbery Report “Listen Up” “Active Listening Debate” “Facts and Inferences” “Sensory Overload”

Speaking Competencies
“You can not hit a target if you do not know what it is.” Useful Topic: select a topic that is appropriate to the audience and the occasion. Original, engaging, and offer new information. Engaging Introduction: should contain an attention grabber (hook), establish credibility, provides sound orientation for the topic, states a clear thesis, previews points in a memorable way. Clear Organization: well organized, delivers speech with clear and organized main points, employs effective transitions and signposts to help the speech flow well.

Speaking Competencies Cont.
Well-Supported Ideas: points are well supported with a variety of credible materials, sources provide excellent support for the thesis, sources are clearly cited. Closure in Conclusion: provides a clear and memorable summary of the points, refers back to the thesis (big picture), ends with a strong clincher or call to action. Clear and Vivid Language: language is exceptionally clear, vivid, and imaginative. Language is free from bias, grammatical errors, and inappropriate usage.

Suitable Vocal Expression: excellent use of vocal variation (the opposite of monotone), intensity and pacing are characteristics of an advanced speaker. Vocal expression is natural, enthusiastic, and avoids fillers (like, um, uh, etc.) Corresponding Non-Verbals: An advanced speaker has posture, gestures, facial expression and eye contact that are natural, well developed, and display high levels of poise and confidence

Adapted to the Audience: The advanced speaker shows how information is important to audience members, and his speech is tailored to their beliefs, values and attitudes. He may also make allusions to culturally shared experiences. Adept use of Visual Aids: Exceptional explanation and presentation of visual aids is characteristic of the advanced speaker. Her speech has visuals that provide powerful insight into the speech topic, and her visuals are of high professional quality. Convincing Persuasion: articulates the problem and solution in a clear and compelling manner, supports claims with powerful and credible evidence, while avoiding logical fallacies. Speech contains a memorable call to action.

Types of Speeches There are three are three general purposes for speaking in public. To Inform: the presenter will share information about a particular person, place, object, process, concept, or issue by defining, describing, or explaining. To Persuade: the presenter will attempt to reinforce or change their audiences’ beliefs, attitudes, feelings, or values. To Commemorate or Entertain: These types of speeches often strengthen the bonds between audience members from recalling a shared experience or intend to amuse audiences through humor, stories, or illustrations.

Review questions 1. What are the personal, professional and public benefits of enhancing your public speaking skills? 2. What is the difference between the linear and transactional model of communication? 3. Define and give an original example of each of the elements of the communication process. 4. Which of the elements of the communication process do you think has the greatest impact on the way a message is interpreted. Explain. 5. What are the three types of speeches? For each of the three types of speeches, give two examples of an occasion or situation in which that type of speech might be given. 6. List the eleven speaking competencies. For each competency listed, describe the differences between the advanced speaker and the inexperienced speaker. Activities

Review activities 1. Working in groups of 3 – 5, generate a list of the characteristics of ineffective speakers you have seen. Next, generate a list of the characteristics of the effective speakers you have seen. What three qualities do you believe are most important to be a successful speaker? Explain. 2. Locate a speech on YouTube. While watching the speech, identify the strengths and weaknesses of the speaker’s content and delivery? What three things could the speaker improve on? What three things did you like about the speaker? If you were to deliver the speech, how would you do things differently? 3. Create your own list of speech anxiety symptoms (what happens to your?) Create your own list of strategies to help reduce these symptoms.

Preparing a Speech Choosing a Topic
Skim headlines in newspapers for current events. Check television schedules for interesting news programs or documentaries. Surf the internet. Think about people (individuals or groups), places (local, national, or international), objects (natural or human-made), events (personal or public), processes (how something is done or made), concepts (theories, complex ideas), and controversial issues. Make an inventory of your own interests, experiences, and classes you have taken. List things you are curious about and skills you have always wanted to learn.

Preparing a Speech Cont.
Choosing a Topic When you have brainstormed possible topics, go through the list and evaluate them. Key Points: How to Select the Most Suitable Topic Which topics stimulate your imagination the most? (In order to excite your audience, it is important that you be enthusiastic yourself.) Which topics will be of greatest interest to the audience? After you make your final selection, you need to assess whether you can cover the topic in the time allotted for your speech. If you have too much material, you need to narrow your topic down in some way.

Determining Your Purpose To fine-tune your focus before you start researching your topic, determine the general and specific purpose as well as the central idea of your speech. The general purpose of a speech usually is to entertain, to inform, or to persuade; the specific purpose describes exactly what a speaker wants to accomplish; and the central idea is the core of your message. Here is an example. Topic: Video Editing on Home Computer General Purpose: To inform Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the processes involved in editing videos on one’s home computer and to introduce commonly used software Central Idea: Video editing skills are easy to acquire. Provide the students with the thesis guidelines handout.

Researching Your Topic After you have selected a topic and determined your specific purpose, you should research it thoroughly. Your audience will expect comprehensive and up-to-date coverage. There are many sources for information. Key Points Sources for Conducting Research Books • Encyclopedias • Almanacs • Atlases 7 • Magazines • Newspapers • Professional Journals • Audiorecordings • Videos and Films • Internet • Electronic Databases • Lectures • Interviews • Surveys To ensure the validity of your material, look for authoritative sources that will be credible to your listeners *Provide the students the handout titled “Selecting Support Material” from “Public Speaking Guidelines” pg. 8.

Provide the students with a “good website checklist
Provide the students with a “good website checklist.”/ Tips for searching the web from “Speaking Across the Curriculum

Warning Be selective. Don’t overwhelm your audience. Use only reliable facts and statistics. Don’t confuse your audience with too many numbers. Round off numbers when possible. Use visuals to make statistics more understandable. Humor should be relevant to the speech topic and sensitive to the audience. Don’t poke fun at people; humor can easily give offense. Humor is most suitable for entertaining speeches. The speaker needs to be comfortable with the audience to inject humor into a speech.

Organizing Your Speech The easiest way to organize a speech is to begin with the body of the speech. Divide your speech in to main points, the fewer the better. Arrange your main points in the body of your speech. Provide and discuss the Organizational Pattern handout from “Public Speaking Guidelines,” pg. 10.

Sample Body Outline Title: Tour of Manhattan A. Downtown 1. Lower Manhattan a. Battery Park and the Statue of Liberty b. Wall Street 2. Chinatown 3. Greenwich Village B. Midtown 1. Empire State Building 2. Central Park C. Uptown 1. Museums a. Museum of Natural History b. Metropolitan Museum c. Guggenheim Museum 2. Harlem 3. Columbia University

Preparing a Speech Introduction
One of the most important parts of a speech. Should function as an: Attention-getter Create interest Motivate the audience to listen Establish your credibility Preview your main points *Provide the students with pg. 12 of “Public Speaking Guidelines.”

Preparing a Speech Conclusion
Leads out of the body and provides closure. Introductions and conclusions should be of equal length, and significantly shorter than the body. Conclusions and Introductions should be 1/5 of the total speech. *Provide the students pg of “Public Speaking Guidelines.”

Speech Outline Form Title: General Purpose: Specific Purpose: Central Idea: I. Introduction A. Gaining Attention: B. Motivating the Audience: C. Establishing Credibility: D. Preview of Main Ideas: II. Body A. (fill in subpoints and sub-subpoints) B. C. III. Conclusion A. Signaling the End: B. Review of Main Points: C. Reference to Introduction: D. Ending with Impact: *”Scrammbled Outline” from “Speaking Across the Curriculum”

Preparing a Speech Language Use (give the students pg of “Public Speaking Guidelines”). Spoken language is more informal and often more vivid and intense. Since a listener cannot go back and re-read what a speaker says, effective oral language is also simpler and more repetitious. Should provide plentiful examples and illustrations. Modes of Delivery Impromptu – allow for little or no preparation. Extemporaneous – based on thorough preparation, but presents ideas freely, using only an outline or keywords. Manuscript – require a written text and are delivered word for word. *Provide the students with pg of “Public Speaking Guidelines.”

Impromptu Speeches Key Points
If you have to give an impromptu speech and have a little time to prepare, jot down three or four main points. Think of a few examples to illustrate each main points. To prevent forgetting something important, think of the question who, what, when, where, why, and how.

Extemporaneous Speeches
Should be prepared well, but delivered without the help of a written text. Do not memorize: A memorized speech usually does not sound as fresh and direct as an unmemorized speech. The need to remember every line prevents the speaker from focusing on and interacting with the audience. Memorized words and sentences take on so much importance that forgetting one often throws a speaker off track and seriously interrupts the flow of the speech.

Extemporaneous Speeches Cont.
Key Points Use your outline or a small number of index cards to serve as a memory aid. Don’t write out the text of your speech. Use major key words only. When you rehearse your speech, change the wording of your sentences a little every time. This will help you remain flexible and not get locked into the trap of memorization described above. Make sure you time yourself during rehearsal so that your speech fits within the given time limit. Practice all elements of delivery (including eye contact, gestures, posture, and facial expressions). If available, audio- or videotape yourself or rehearse in front of one or more friends or family members. This will allow you to receive feedback and cut down on your nervousness later on.

Manuscript Speeches Based on a written text. Key Points
Type your script triple spaced and in a large font size. Sufficient “white space” will help you follow your text as you speak. Use slashes where you want to pause and highlight words or phrases you want to emphasize. Write only on one side of the paper, leaving the back blank. Number all pages. Print your script on pastel-colored rather than white paper to reduce glare from lights. Read the script several times silently, then several times aloud. Practice your speech so that delivery becomes as natural as possible (including frequent eye contact, vocal variety, gestures, posture, and facial expressions). It may be helpful to trace your utterances with your index finger on the left side of the script so that you don’t lose your place. If possible, audio- or videotape your speech and ask for feedback from friends or family members.

Delivering Your Speech
Setting-Up: (Provide the students pg from “Public Speaking Guidelines to read) Appearance and Body Language: Appearance Eye Contact Facial Expressions Gestures Body Posture and Movement Vocal Behavior Pitch Rate and Fluency Volume

Assignment Find a prominent speech on YouTube and watch it once through. In a one page paper please discuss what the speaker does right, and what the speaker does wrong based on the what you read in pages from “Public Speaking Guidelines,”

Delivering Your Speech Cont.
Audiovisual Support (Provide the students pg from “Public Speaking Guidelines” Audiovisual (AV) aids (e.g., posters, overhead transparencies, computer presentation graphics, audiorecordings, etc.) have many advantages. They help listeners understand the material better. They can make a speech more interesting. If attractively designed, they enhance the speaker’s credibility. They provide something for the audience to see besides the speaker and can thus reduce speaker nervousness. They can serve as a memory aid for the speaker. *Handout using visual aids handout from “Speaking Across the Curriculum.”

Assignment Create a study guide/test for the students to take on all of the above information.

Informative Speeches A narrative speech is a speech telling a story. While stories can be told in many different ways, they usually consist of five parts (Labov, 1972). Opener: A short statement announcing the story (e.g., “You won’t believe what happened to me . . .,” “Did I ever tell you . . .,” “I’ll always remember when . . .”). Orientation: Introduction of time, place, and characters (e.g., “Last Saturday, I went canoeing with my boyfriend on Bear River.”). Complicating Events: The events of the story (e.g., We arrived at the rental place at 10 a.m. Events and got a really nice, red canoe Suddenly, the water swept us away Next thing we knew, we capsized And as if 36 that wasn’t enough, we lost everything to the river: our lunch, sun hats, and towels.”). Resolution: How the story ends (e.g., “We were soaking wet but still alive.”). Coda: A connection between the past and the present (e.g., “Looking back, it was quite funny, really.”). When people tell a story well, they also employ techniques to make it worth listening to. These techniques include directly telling the audience how to feel (e.g., “you’ll be amazed”), recreating noises (e.g., “the water went s-w-o-o-s-h”), exaggerating (e.g., “we were under water for an eternity”), and evaluating individual events (e.g., “I was so scared”). In a narrative speech, the story is told for its own sake. Short narratives can also be told as part of another speech, however, in form of anecdotes or jokes that serve as attention getters or examples for a point. Stories catch the interest of most audiences and should be incorporated freely into speeches.

Informative Speeches Cont.
Demonstration speeches show how something works (e.g., a camera) or how something is done (e.g., CPR). Audiovisual aids are therefore essential. Sometimes, demonstrations show something that takes place on the floor (e.g., how to brake on inline skates). During such a speech, it is important that all listeners have a clear view. If a process takes too long to demonstrate (e.g., folding an intricate origami pattern), speakers may choose to demonstrate only part of it during the speech. The rest can be shown through visuals depicting the different stages of the process which are prepared beforehand. At times, it may be necessary to pause while demonstrating an action (e.g., when showing how to play the clarinet). In general, however, pauses should be kept to a minimum. Speakers should continue speaking during the demonstration and accompany actions with words. By the same token, they should maintain as much eye contact with the audience as possible.

Informative Speeches Cont.
Informative speeches aim to educate the audience. Speakers basically act as teachers and provide new knowledge and ideas. Topics can include people (e.g., Jimi Hendrix, the Ainu people in Japan), places (e.g., India, the Bermuda triangle), objects (e.g., chopsticks, a sculpture by Rodin), events (e.g., folk festivals, space missions), concepts (e.g., intelligence, alternative medicine), and issues (e.g., assisted suicide, industrial pollution). To give an effective informative speech, it is helpful to find out what the audience already knows and what they want or need to know. The speaker should strive to sustain the listeners’ interest throughout the speech (by using captivating language, personalizing the message, and approaching the topic in fresh ways). In the end, the audience should feel enriched.

Informative Speech Activities/Assignments
Manuscript Newspapers and news articles (videotape and paper) “Picture Speech” Extemporaneous Demonstration (videotape and paper) “Demonstration Speech” Expository (videotape and paper) “I am the Expert” “Expository Speech” “All About Me” (videotape and paper) “Enlightening Presentations with PowerPoint. Impromptu “Dialogue”

Persuasive Speeches The goal of a persuasive speech is to convince the audience. Persuasive speeches can be centered around claims of fact (e.g., “the earth is in danger of being destroyed by meteors”), claims of values (e.g., “factory farming is immoral”), and claims of policy (e.g., “we should adopt a flat rate tax system”). If the listeners oppose the speaker on an issue (e.g., the death- penalty), the speaker will attempt to change their minds. If the listeners agree with the speaker but don’t act on their beliefs (e.g., they think that donating blood is important but haven’t done so themselves), the speaker will try to actuate them (i.e., persuade them to be more consistent). Finally, if the listeners are convinced and already act accordingly, the speaker can use persuasive speech techniques to provide reinforcement and encouragement, to strengthen their conviction.

Planning a Persuasive Speech
In order to plan the most effective strategy, the speaker should survey the audience on their beliefs before the speech. No matter whether the audience is unconvinced or convinced, however, they speaker will have to provide proof to make his or her views compelling. Several factors can contribute to a persuasive argument. Convincing evidence (e.g., facts, statistics, testimony) Sound reasoning (e.g., analogies, examples, narratives) Appeals to emotion (e.g., sympathy, guilt, revulsion) Promise of needs fulfillment (e.g., physical security, well-being, adventure) Positive speaker characteristics (e.g., dynamism, good character, good will)

Organizational Designs for Persuasive Speaking
Problem-solution pattern (= describing a problem and offering solutions) Comparison-contrast (= showing the advantages of one’s own proposal vis-à- vis opposing views) Negative method pattern (= focus on the shortcomings of other proposals) Motivated sequence (= five steps: arousing attention, demonstrating a need, satisfying the need, picturing the results, calling for action) Possibly more than any other speech type, persuasive speeches need to be tailored to the audience. Each listener will ask “What’s in it for me?” An effective persuasive speaker has to keep this question in mind at all times and aim to provide the answer.

Logical Fallacies and Rhetoric
Pathos/Ethos/Logos Worksheet Persuasive Writing Style “Listening to faulty reasoning and fallacies worksheet.” “The Pathos, Ethos, Logos of Other People’s Money.” “Fun with Fallacies”

Persuasive Speeches Activities/Assignments
Manuscript “Persuasion without Rhetoric.” Extemporaneous Persuasion without rhetoric Sales Pitch, Commercials, Movie Trailer, Project Pitch “The Sales Pitch” “Literary Sales Pitch” “Surplus Sales” “Speech to Persuade” “The Movie Trailer” “Selling the Product” “Commercial in a Bag” “The Green Light Project” Impromptu Spontaneous Argumentation “Four-Step Argument” “SpAr” Refutation Fishbowl Debates “Philosophical Chairs” Classroom Congress/Panel “Yes But…Yes And” “Panel Debate” “Classroom Congress”

Special Occasion/Entertaining Speeches
Introductions Give the person’s name and title. (Make sure you know the correct pronunciation.) Provide a few pertinent details about the person’s educational or professional background. If the person is to give a speech, prepare the audience for its content. Be brief. Welcome the person.

Special Occasion/Entertaining Speeches Cont.
Award Presentations Describe the nature of the award and its significance. Explain what the recipient did to qualify. Name the recipient and offer your congratulations. Acceptance Speeches Thank the people who honored you. Give credit to people who helped you. Mention what the award means to you.

Announcements Draw the audience’s attention to the event. Provide information about the who, what, when, and where of the event as well as the cost. Describe the benefits of attending the event. Conclude with a summary of the most important information. Toasts Begin or end with “Here’s to . . .” Select one characteristic in honor of the person or event and give an example of that characteristic. Be brief.

Bidding Farewell to a Person Who Is Leaving Mention the accomplishments of the person. Share funny anecdotes or happy memories. Express your sadness and sense of loss. Wish the person well. Give the person a farewell present (if appropriate). Bidding Farewell When You Are Leaving Tell the audience what they have meant to you. List lessons that you have learned during your residence. Express your sadness but also your hopes for the future. Invite people to stay in touch or visit you.

Eulogies Express your pain of loss. Describe the personal characteristics and accomplishments of the deceased. Offer comfort. Celebrate the values for which the deceased stood.

Special Occasion Speeches Activities/Assignments
Manuscript Poetry (video tape and paper) “Story Telling” (video tape and paper) “Duolog” (video tape and paper) Extemporaneous Abbot and Costello Bit Eulogy (video tape and paper) Wedding Toast (video tape and paper) Acceptance Speech (video tape and paper) Introducing a famous person (video tape and paper) “Oral Interpretation of a Biography or Autobiography” (video tape and paper) Advertisement T.V. Newscast “Point of View, Changing Perspectives” Impromptu “Generic Job Interview” (video tape and paper) Changing Perspective “Impromptu Speaking” “Off the top of your head” “Sixty seconds, an impromptu game” “Spontaneous Fishbowl” “Tableau”

Introduction to public speaking

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