The Fundamentals of Public Speaking

The Fundamentals of Public Speaking

Class Rules Mutual Respect Be a good and respectful audience
Turn off cell phones (Hiding a phone is not “turning off”) No food in classroom Attend to bathroom needs before class If you must go to the bathroom, ask, then leave cell phone with professor

Attendance “Half of life is showing up”
(That doesn’t mean showing up half the time) Public Speaking is a participation class Attendance taken at beginning of class Late students have no claim to having their attendance recorded.

Attendance More than three absences  Grade dropped
No difference between “excused” & “unexcused”

Being a Good Audience Showing up on time Listening
Not checking cell phones messages Being quiet during speech No knuckle-cracking

Top 5 Ways to Fail this Course
Believe this is a “light” course Only come to deliver speeches Not prepare for speeches Come late to class Ignore the cell phone policy

Dropping the Course Stopping Attendance is not “dropping”
Instructors can not “drop” you. If you wish to drop, go to Registrar ASAP

Class Speech Process Student speaker provides outline to Instructor
Speaker introduces him/herself to audience (First & Last Name) Gives speech Speaker opens floor for questions Instructor opens floor for critique (feedback) Audience provides critique (feedback)

Anxiety / Nervousness Nervousness is normal
Survey: Death vs. Public Speaking This class is “safe” This class is a place to practice Remember, the audience wants you to succeed.

Anxiety / Nervousness Know your audience Don’t procrastinate
Pick an appropriate topic Prepare & be organized Instructor opens floor for critique (feedback) Audience provides critique (feedback)

Why Study Public Speaking?
Employment Empowerment

“A Speech” vs. Conversation
Planned Formal Roles of audience and speaker well defined Spontaneous Informal Roles are fluid

Communications Process
Sender Receiver Filter Transmission Encoding Decoding Static

Disfluency An interruption in the smooth flow of speech, by a pause, the repetition of a word or syllable

Overcoming Barriers to Effective Listening
Reading: Chapter 3 Turn Cell Phones OFF

Listening Selecting Attending Understanding Remembering Responding

Barriers to Listening Information Overload Outside Distractions
Prejudice Difference in speech and thought rates Responding

Audience Centered Speechmaking Process
Reading: Chapter 2 Turn Cell Phones OFF

Consider Your Audience
Gather & analyze information about your audience Consider the nature and diversity of your audience - Culture, Beliefs, Experiences, Political Inclinations - Consider making appropriate references or comparisons What is the occasion? - If so, acknowledge it or integrate it into your speech What are the audience expectations? - Content - Length

Consider the Venue Physical location & configuration Formal or casual?
What comes before or after your speech or presentation?

Select & Narrow the Topic
Who is the audience? What are my interests, talents & experiences? Determine the general purpose - To inform - To persuade - To entertain Determine the specific purpose Develop central idea

Generate Main Ideas Central idea can be summarized in a single sentence Develop main points of speech Use logical divisions (and sequence) If possible present new insights (Textbook calls this “invention”) Support these insights (Don’t expect faith)

Gather Supporting Material
Supporting material should be: - Accurate - Interesting May include material from: - News articles - Quotes - Statistics

Visual Materials Visual Aids should support and reinforce your points
Avoid irrelevant or distracting “eye candy” or gimmicks

Organize Your Speech Use major divisions: Introduction
Get attention & focus audience (joke, story, shocking statistic) Provide an idea of where the speech is going Preview structure (sometimes)

Organize Your Speech Body Conclusion
(Structured with subdivisions) I. Major Idea A. Supporting idea or evidence B. Supporting idea or evidence II. Major Idea Conclusion Should remind audience of central idea “Call to action”

Rehearse First, in your head Then, out loud
Work out pronunciations and inadvertent tongue twisters

Deliver Your Speech Make eye contact
Audiences will not perceive nervousness as much as you think Have water, but not milk, caffeine or carbonated beverages Spit out the gum

Questions?

Delivering Your Speech
Reading: Chapter 13

Methods of Delivery Manuscript Reading Memorized Speaking Impromptu Speaking Extemporaneous Speaking

Manuscript Reading Advantages: Disadvantages:
- Can craft a careful message (particularly helpful if speaking to the media) - Allows for polishing and stylizing Disadvantages: - May sound like it’s being read - Requires skill & practice - May require cue cards or a teleprompter & operator

Teleprompter Video Camera Video Monitor With Speech (Reverse)

Memorized Speaking Advantages: Disadvantages:
- Can have direct eye contact - No need for notes - Can move around freely and gesture Disadvantages: - Speaker may forget - May sound overly mechanical or rehearsed

Impromptu Speaking Advantages: Disadvantages:
- Can move around freely and gesture - Spontaneously and authentically delivered Disadvantages: - May be less organized - Difficult to cite evidence

Extemporaneous Speaking
Knowing major outlined points, but not memorizing exact wording Advantages: - Well organized and researched - Audience sees authentically delivered speech Disadvantages: - Takes time to prepare - Takes skill to deliver well - Notes are usually needed

Characteristics of Effective Delivery
Good eye contact Gestures - Pointing - Hands on hip(s) - “Parade rest” - “Fig Leaf clutch” Gesture functions - Repeating/reinforcing, substituting, contradicting

Movement - Can eliminate barriers between speaker and audience - Maintain eye contact while moving Posture

Vocal Quality & Delivery - Pitch - Volume - Articulation / Diction - Examples of poor articulation “Lemme” “Dint” “Seeya” “Wanna” “Mornin” “Whayado?” “Fogedaboudit”

Pronunciation “aks”, “Nucular” Dialect po’-lice vs. “po-lice’ um’-brella vs. Um-brell’-a in’-sur-ance vs. in-sur’-ance Rate Pauses

Use of Microphones Types of Microphones Sound Check / Sound Operator
- Stationary - Hand mike - Boom - Lavalier Sound Check / Sound Operator Microphones amplify mistakes too! Beware of levels, sound pops, nearby speakers (feedback) & the inverse-square law

Inverse Square Law Distance 1x 2x 3x 4x 5x Volume 1 1/4 1/9 1/16 1/25

Delivering Your Speech
We plenty of rest Arrive early Visualize success

Speaking on Television
Tone down gestures Pay attention to attire - Avoid whites - Avoid extreme darks - Avoid heavy patterns - Solid colors are best - Avoid shiny jewelry - Wear clothing that is slimming (Avoid horizontal stripes, etc.)

Responding to Questions
Anticipate & Prepare Rephrase question for audience Stay on Message Respond to the audience not just the questioner Listen non-judgmentally Neutralize hostile questions Be brief If you don’t know, admit it Indicate limits of Q&A

Questions?

Developing Your Speech
Reading: Chapter 6

Developing Your Speech
Select and Narrow Your Topic Determine Your Purpose Develop Your Central Idea Generate Your Main Ideas

Guidelines for Selecting a Topic
Consider the Audience - What do they know already? - What is their predisposition? - What are their expectations? - Have you spoken to this audience before? Consider the Occasion - A Formal Commemorative Occasion? - A Roast? Consider the Audience - What do they know already? (DiMaggio - A-Rod, Sinatra or Beyonce) - What is their predisposition? (Dem vs. Rep) - What are their expectations? (Serious vs. Humorous) - Have you spoken to this audience before? (Buzzword Bingo) Consider the Occasion

Strategies for Selecting a Topic
Brainstorming Listening for Topic Ideas - Professors - Other experts - Television / Radio Reading for Topic Ideas - Newspapers / Magazines - Books & Encyclopedias - Scan Web Directories

Narrowing a Topic Idea Cluster Prevention Family Courts White Collar
Supreme Court Gangs Violence Crime Evidence Rules Court System Economic Criminal Justice Causes Appeals Social Jurisdiction Gangs FBI Prisons Prison Life Law Enforcement State Police Inmate Discipline Prisoner Rights Local Police Rehabilitation Solitary Confinement Training Training Work Release

Narrowing a Topic Idea Cluster Supreme Court Early History
Judicial Activism Checks & Balances Specific Cases Marbury v. Madison Originalism vs. “Living Document” Brown v. Board of Education Roe v. Wade

Determining Purpose General Purpose Specific Purpose
(To Inform, Persuade or Entertain) Specific Purpose - Behavioral Objective Limit Specific Purpose to Single Idea - Must reflect needs, interests, knowledge & expectations of audience - This is the “Central Idea”

Behavioral Objectives
Unobservable or Un-measurable “To know about…” “To understand…” Observable or Measurable “To be able to explain the difference between…” “To be able to define…” “To be able to perform…” “To be able to analyze…”

Generating Main Ideas Support why the central idea is true
Use Logical Divisions Can you use a series of steps or a chronological progression?

Generating Main Ideas Central Idea Main Idea Main Idea Main Idea
Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details

Questions?

Organizing Your Speech
Supporting the Central Idea Reading: Chapter 9

Organizing Main Ideas Organize Topically Based on…
- Primacy (Important if audience is unfamiliar with subject or resistant) - Recency (Good for focusing on last item) - Complexity (From simple to complex) Elephant Tangerine Window Garden Table Seesaw Screwdriver Automobile Cafeteria Zucchini

Organize Chronologically
Organizing Main Ideas Organize Chronologically - Historically (Development of an institution, scientific progress, etc.) - Steps in a procedure (Obtaining a drivers license, performing an operation, etc.) Organize Spatially Elephant Tangerine Window Garden Table Seesaw Screwdriver Automobile Cafeteria Zucchini

Organize by Cause & Effect
Organizing Main Ideas Organize by Cause & Effect 1. Cause Effect Effect 1. Effect Cause Cause Elephant Tangerine Window Garden Table Seesaw Screwdriver Automobile Cafeteria Zucchini

Organizing Main Ideas Organize by Problem & Solution
1. Problem Solution Solution 1. Solution Problem Problem Elephant Tangerine Window Garden Table Seesaw Screwdriver Automobile Cafeteria Zucchini

Organizing Supporting Details
Central Idea Main Idea Main Idea Main Idea Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details Supporting Details

Organizing Supporting Details
Primacy or Recency Complexity (Simple to Complex) From soft to hard evidence (From opinions to facts) - Illustration or Example - Expert Testimony - Hard Statistics Elephant Tangerine Window Garden Table Seesaw Screwdriver Automobile Cafeteria Zucchini

Transitions Transitions signal moving from one section to another.
Transition help explain the relationship of one point to another Verbal Transitions Nonverbal Transitions Elephant Tangerine Window Garden Table Seesaw Screwdriver Automobile Cafeteria Zucchini

Previews Can increase interest Control expectations Elephant Tangerine
Window Garden Table Seesaw Screwdriver Automobile Cafeteria Zucchini

Summaries Remind the audience of key points Can reinforce a conclusion
Can lead up to a call-to-action Elephant Tangerine Window Garden Table Seesaw Screwdriver Automobile Cafeteria Zucchini

Questions?

Introducing and Concluding Your Speech
Reading: Chapter 10 Please turn OFF all cell phones

The Purpose of Introductions
Get the audiences favorable attention To give the audience a reason to listen Introduce the subject Establish credibility Preview your main ideas

Possible Introductions
Illustrations or anecdotes Startling facts or statistics Quotations Humor Questions References to historical or recent events Personal references

Comedy vs. Humor The objective of Comedy is to make the audience laugh. The objective of Humor is to make a point in an amusing way.

The Purpose of Conclusions
Summarize the speech Restate main ideas Provide closure Motivate the audience to respond

Conclusion Possibilities
Reference back to the introduction Issue an appeal or challenge

Questions?

Please turn OFF all cell phones
Speaking to Inform Reading: Chapter 15 Please turn OFF all cell phones

The Goals of Informative Speaking
To enhance understanding To maintain interest To be remembered To present information objectively

Types of Topics Speeches about Objects Speeches about Processes
(Dead Sea Scrolls, Antique Toys, the Rosetta Stone, Digital Video Cameras) Speeches about Processes (Selecting a school, filing taxes, refinishing furniture, installing, the Electoral College) Speeches about People (Biography) Speeches about Events (December 7, 1941, 9/11/2001, WWII, Civil Rights Movement) Speeches about Ideas & Issues (Free Enterprise, Socialism, Open Enrollment, Creativity)

Strategies to Enhance Audience Understanding
Speaking with Clarity Preview your ideas in your introduction Relate your points to one another Summarize key ideas Handouts (outlines, examples, follow-up readings) Don’t present too much information too quickly

Use Principles & Techniques of Adult Learning (Androgogy) Provide info that can be used immediately Actively involve listener in the learning process Connect with listener’s experience Help solve their problems

Use Analogies to facilitate understanding “If the our galaxy were the size of the United States, our solar system would be the size of a baseball.”

Use Exercises FB INA SA NA TOU PS IR S FBI NASA NATO UPS IRS

Strategies to Enhance Audience Understanding & Retention
Use Vivid Descriptions / Word Pictures Involve all senses Sight – Color, Brightness, Contrast Hearing – Volume, Pitch, Scratchy Touch – Smoothness, Roughness, Temperate Smell – Sweet, Sour, Putrid, Taste – Delicate, Clean, Refreshing, Salty, Sweet Emotions – Love, fear, anger, compassion

Strategies to Maintain Interest
Establish a Motive for Your Audience Use the Unexpected Tell an Interesting Story - May include Conflict, Action, Suspense and/or Humor

Strategies to Enhance Recall
Build in Redundancy Make your Ideas Short and Simple Pace the flow of Information Reinforce the Key Ideas

Questions?

Outlining & Editing Your Speech

Outlining & Editing Writing is a process, not a result
Even outlines have drafts A speech must have a logical flow and deliverability

Outline Purpose Introduction Central Idea Preview Main Ideas
In an outline, writing in the purpose may help keep focus Introduction Central Idea Preview Main Ideas Body (containing main ideas and supporting material) Conclusion

Correct Outline Form for Body
I. First Main Idea A. Subpoint of First Main Idea 1. Subpoint of Subpoint A a. Subpoint of Subpoint 1 b. Subpoint of Subpoint 1 2. Subpoint of Subpoint A a. Subpoint of Subpoint 2 b. Subpoint of Subpoint 2 B. Subpoint of Main First Main Idea 1. Subpoint of Subpoint B 2. Subpoint of Subpoint B II. Second Main Idea I. A. 1. a. (1) (a) Sample outline on Page 250

Editing Review your specific purpose Consider your audience
Say it simply Eliminate phrases that don’t add meaning Editing is just as much about what you don’t say Editing doesn’t stop until the speech

Avoid Meaningless Phrases
“In my opinion…” “…and all that” “As a matter of fact…” “Before I begin, I’d like to say…” “When all is said and done…” “At the end of the day…”

“Give us this day our daily bread”
“We respectfully petition, request and entreat that due and adequate provision be made, this day and date hereinafter subscribed, for the satisfying of these petitioners’ nutritional requirements and for the organizing of such methods of allocation and distribution as may be deemed necessary and proper to assure the reception by and for said petitioners of such quantities of baked cereal products shall in the judgment of the aforesaid petitioners, constitute a sufficient supply thereof.” “Give us this day our daily bread”

Avoid Narrating Your Speaking Technique
“Here’s a story I’d like to share” “I’d like to make several points here” “There are a few points I’d like to make” “I’d like to give you an illustration” Signposts (transitions) are OK, but avoid unnecessary phrases or sentences.

“Let me just say very quickly that the horrifying abuse of Iraqi prisoners which the world has now seen is absolutely unacceptable and inexcusable. And the response of the administration – certainly the Pentagon – has been slow and insufficient. “It is important to understand this point. The company has spent billions and billions of dollars on unnecessary research that has yielded no results. “Basically, the incompetent governor of our state completely misread the political situation, resulting in the total failure of this key legislation.

Delivery Outline/Speaking Notes
Do not include your purpose statement Use single words or brief phrases Include supporting materials (Quotes, statistics, etc.) Include key phrases for important points Can include pictures, symbols or diagrams Single page or index cards?

Questions?

Gathering & Using Supporting Materials
Reading: Chapters 7 & 8 Please turn OFF all cell phones

Supporting Materials Must support the Main Ideas and ultimately the Central Idea Must be interesting Must be comprehendible to the audience

Search Methods & Sources
Books - Encyclopedias - Dictionaries - Atlases - Directories - Almanacs & Yearbooks - Books of Quotations - Biographies Periodicals - Newspapers (Stacks) - Magazines - Trade Journals Government Documents & Databases The Internet - Search Engines (Google, Yahoo, etc.) - Association Websites - Government Websites - experts - Wikipedia Interviewing experts

Preparing for an Interview
Determine what information you want from your interviewee Research beforehand (Don’t waste interviewing time by asking questions that can easily be answered elsewhere!) Plan your questions ahead of time Dress appropriately, act professionally Use a recorder, (but ask first) and take notes

Evaluating Sources Accuracy & Reliability
Does the source provide consistently correct information? Verify with second sources when possible Objectivity Be careful of biases and agendas Date Is the information current? Is it still relevant? Or, is it a historical reference?

Supporting Materials Illustrations Descriptions & Explanations
- Brief Illustrations - Extended Illustrations - Hypothetical “Imagine a future where…” Descriptions & Explanations Definitions Use to enlighten, not as a filler

Supporting Materials Analogies Statistics - Literal Analogies
- Figurative Analogies Statistics Round off numbers “Over 45 thousand” rather than “45,394” Charts reinforce numbers

Supporting Materials Opinions - Expert Testimony - Lay Testimony

Questions?

Speaking Freely & Ethically

Freedom of Speech First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution
“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances.” The First Amendment does NOT protect slander or libel Sedition Act

What is Censorship? Do we have right to be published?
Or merely a right to publish? Sedition Act

Freedom of Speech History
First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution 1798 Sedition Act During WWI, SC ruled it lawful to restrict speech that was a “clear & present danger” (1919) ACLU is formed in 1920 Sedition Act

Freedom of Speech History
In 1964, Supreme Courts narrows definitions of slander to speech which harms with malice 1989 – Supreme Court declares flag burning is protected speech 1997 – Supreme Court strikes down the Communication Decency Act Sedition Act

Speaking Ethically With freedom comes responsibility
Have a clear & responsible goal Be honest Use sound evidence & reasoning - Avoid Logical Fallacies Be tolerant Don’t plagiarize - Acknowledge Sources (Written or Oral)

Logical Fallacies Basing an argument on insufficient evidence
Red Herring Faulty Analogy (Prohibit alcohol on boats  Prohibit alcohol on docks) Binary Fallacy Bandwagon Effect Attack made on character instead of issue

Logical Fallacies Circular reasoning
“Not enough chairs  Too many people” “Too many people  Not enough chairs” Post Hoc reasoning – (Confusing time connection with cause & effect) Hypostatization – Treating abstract concepts with concrete realities

Questions?

Understanding Principles of Persuasive Speaking

Persuasion Defined Persuasion is the process of changing or reinforcing a listener’s attitudes, beliefs or behavior. Resistance to persuasion will vary

Examples of Persuasive Speech
Election Campaign Speech Sales Presentation Business Proposal Presentation Recruitment Speech Donation Solicitation Debate

Classical Approach to Understanding Persuasion
Ethos Refers to credibility Logos Logic Pathos Appealing to human emotions

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
Elaboration means to actively think ELM suggests two paths to persuasion - Direct Persuasion Method - Indirect Persuasion Method

Using Dissonance Dissonance is a mental conflict or lack of harmony

Reactions to Dissonance
Listeners may… Discredit or disregard you Reinterpret the message Seek new information for validation Stop listening Change their attitudes, beliefs or behaviors

Persuade through Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self Actualization Status / Esteem Belonging Security Survival / Physical Needs

Using Positive Motivation
Focus on Positive Values Emphasize Benefits, not Features - Features are characteristics of what is being discussed - Benefits are the good results that creates a positive response

Using Negative Motivation
Using Fear Appeal Using “if-then” statements Threat to loved ones are more successful than those aimed at audience members The greater the trust in the speaker, the more successful the threat

Acknowledging Opposing Opinions & Arguments
Makes you more credible and thoughtful Preempts opposing arguments Gives the audience ammunition against future opposing arguments

Questions?

The Use of Reasoning in Persuasive Speaking

Persuasion Techniques
Different cultures tend to use different methods of persuasion Narrative Methods (inducing emotions) Inductive Reasoning Deductive Reasoning Causal Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning Uses specific instances to reach a general and probable conclusion Challenge Validity by Asking: Are there enough instances to support the conclusion? Are the instances typical? Are the instances recent?

Reasoning by Analogy A type of inductive reasoning which uses comparisons Challenge Validity by Asking: Are there enough similarities to outweigh the differences? Is the original assertion true?

Deductive Reasoning Uses general fact to reach a specific and certain conclusion Often takes the form of a syllogism

Syllogism Uses a three-part process: Major Premise Minor Premise
Conclusion

Syllogism Major Premise: “All gods are immortal.”
Minor Premise: “Zeus is a god.” Conclusion: “Zeus is immortal.”

Syllogism Major Premise: “All trees have root systems.”
Minor Premise: “All root systems need nitrogen.” Conclusion: “Therefore, all trees need nitrogen”

Beware the Faulty Syllogism
Major Premise: “Ten people can do work ten times faster than one person.” Minor Premise: “One person can dig a posthole in sixty seconds.” Conclusion: “Therefore, ten people can dig a posthole in six seconds.”

Questions?

Speaking for Occassions

Humor Plays on Words Puns Spoonerism Malapropism
Switching the first sounds in words within a phrase Malapropism Mistakenly using a sound-alike word “My last will and tentacle” “I like a room with a southern explosion”

Humor Plays on Words Hyperbole Understand Verbal Irony Wit Puns
Spoonerism (Switching the first sounds in words within a phrase) Malapropism Hyperbole Understand Verbal Irony Wit

What is “Funny”? Surprise

Questions?

The Fundamentals of Public Speaking

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