1. CHAPTER 8
MOTIVATION

2. Introduction:
Motivation is the process that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining goal.
Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries.
However high intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization.
Persistence is a measure of how long a person can maintain his or her effort.

3. Early theories of motivation: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Safety
Self
Actualize
Esteem
Social
Physiological

4. Theory x and theory y
Theory X: Assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can and that they inherently dislike work. As a result of this, management believes that workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed.
Theory Y: Assumes employees may be self- motivated and can exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties, to them work is as natural as play. Theory Y believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want to do well at work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation.

5. Herzberg’s two factor theory:
Two-factor theory distinguishes between:
Hygiene factors: Factors that do not give positive satisfaction, though dissatisfaction results from their absence. These are extrinsic to the work itself and include aspects such as company policies, supervisory practices or wages/salary.
Motivators: Factors that give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions of the job itself such as recognition, achievement or personal growth.

6. Contemporary theories of motivation, erg theory -
ERG Theory categories are:
Existence Needs: physiological and safety needs (such as hunger, thirst and sex)
Relatedness Needs: social and external esteem (involvement with family, friends, co-workers and employers)
Growth Needs: internal esteem and self actualization (desires to be creative, productive and to complete meaningful tasks)
ERG Theory recognizes that the order of importance of the three categories may vary for each individual. Managers must recognize that an employee has multiple needs to satisfy simultaneously. According to the ERG theory, focusing exclusively on one need at a time will not effectively motivate.

7. McClelland's need theory :
Need for Achievement: People seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations. They dislike succeeding by chance. They accept personal responsibility for success or failure.
Need for Power: Desire to have impact, to be influential & to control others. Prefer to be placed into competitive & status oriented situations, concerned with prestige and gaining influence.
Need for Affiliation: Need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. Individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction.

8. Cognitive evaluation theory:
This theory proposes that when extrinsic rewards are used by org’s as payoffs for superior performance, the intrinsic rewards which are derived from individuals doing what they like are reduced.
In simple terms, when looking at task, we evaluate it in terms of how well it meets our needs to feel competent and in control. If we think we will be able to complete the task, we will be intrinsically motivated to complete the task, requiring no further external motivation.
For example……
So what?
When you ask someone to do something, if you want them to be motivated then ensure that it falls within their current level of competency.

9. Goal setting theory:
Research showed that there was a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal was and people's performance of a task. He found that specific and difficult goals led to better task performance than vague or easy goals.
Goal acceptance and feedback are equally important component.
There are four contingencies in goal setting theory: goal commitment, adequate self efficacy, task characteristics and national culture.

10. Reinforcement theory:
By designing the environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering internal factors like impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behavior individuals are directed by what happens in the environment external to them.
Work environment should be made suitable to the individuals and that punishments actually leads to frustration and de-motivation. Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep on making positive changes in the external environment of the organization.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

11. Equity theory
Employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others.
When an employee see the ratio as unequal, we experience equity tension, otherwise the state of equity exist.
There are four referent comparisons that an employee can use:
1) Self inside
2) Self outside
3) Other inside
4) Other outside

12. Expectancy theory:
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Individual effort 1
Individual
performance 2
Org
rewards 3
Personal
goals
1) Effort – performance relationship
2) Performance – reward relationship
3) Rewards – personal goals relationship

13. Motivating employees in org’s :
Recognize individual differences
Use goals and feedback
Include employees in decision making
Link rewards to performance
Maintain equity

14. Motivational tools: MBO Goal specificity Participative decision making
Performance feedback
Employee recognition programs
Employee involvement programs
Quality circles
ESOP’s

15. Reward system: org’s can offer two types of rewards –
1) Extrinsic rewards
2) Intrinsic rewards
Special issues in motivation:
1) Motivating the diversified
workforce
2) Motivating temporary workers
3) Motivating professionals.