1. Motivation Concepts
70% of all managers surveyed (in a recent national study) said their employees lacked motivation. Motivation remains one of major problems of modern management...
Discussion: Motivation has more to do with who you are than what you do …

2. Today’s Objectives Outline the motivation process
Contrast Theory X and Theory Y
Differentiate motivators from hygiene factors

3. Conceptualize: The characteristics that high achievers prefer
Types of goals that increase performance
Impact of under rewarding employees
Identify key relationships in expectancy theory

4. Motivation
Is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals,
conditioned by the effort's ability to satisfy some individual need.
Note that the definition involves the will or willingness.
Motivation includes goals, ability and individual need.
It makes the connection between what people want and what they need.
It makes mutually beneficial exchanges possible.

5. Why Motivation Remains Elusive
Needs vary among individuals over time
The way in which needs translate into behavior vary widely over time
Even if needs were fixed behavior may not be
The way in which people react to need fulfillment or un fulfillment vary
Cultural dimensions add additional complexity to the entire equation of employee motivation

6. Some Implications for Mangers
Clearly make a determination of the rewards that would be valued by each employee
Key performance to desired outputs
Strongly link reward to measurable performance
Analyze what factors might counteract the effectiveness of the reward
For example, a high performer in a low performance team
Insure that the reward is adequate...

7. Motivation Concepts (Theory)
Need theories
Goal-setting theory
Reinforcement theory
Equity theory
Expectancy theory
Unlike a fact, a theory cannot be proven true or false.
It can only be supported by research.
When empirical evidence does not support a theory, it makes the theory weaker.
Some motivation theories are not as strongly supported by research as others.

8. Need Theory (What are needs?)
A need is similar to a value in that it is fundamentally an internal state
that makes certain outcomes
appear attractive
We defined motivation as the connection between wants and needs. Now let’s define a need.
According to this definition, needs arise because not every outcome is attractive all the time. When certain outcomes are valued, we define that as a need.

9. Theory X and Theory Y Theory X Theory Y Employer belief
about employees’
View of work
Dislike and avoid it
As natural as rest or
play
Ability to control
Must be coerced,
Exercise self direction
controlled, and
and self-control
threatened
Theory X and Theory Y are more specific theories of motivation geared towards the workplace.
The theories are less a description of an individual’s motivation and more a description of employer stereotypes about workers.
Specific workers may display one set of behavior or the other, but most are some mix.
When a supervisor operates on Theory X assumptions, however, the consequences may be self-fulfilling.
Theory Y is the implicit favorite in this listing. Everything looks like it ought to be great with a manager who works under Theory Y assumptions.
This may not always be the case.
Sometimes productivity can fall off even though satisfaction is very high.
Attitude toward
Avoid it, seek formal
Accept it and even
responsibility
direction
seek it
Attitude toward
Security valued over
Management are not
innovation
ambition, so no desire to
the only ones capable
do anything new
of innovation.

10. More on Theory X vs. Y Theory X Theory Y
Managers must coerce employees
Employees can only be motivated by a show of consideration (that is wages)
Theory Y
Involves participative management
Intrinsic belief that people are inherently motivated
People really do want to do a good job...

11. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Instead of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction
2 scales:
Satisfaction | No satisfaction
No dissatisfaction | Dissatisfaction
Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Factor theory has strong face validity.
Managers like it because it seems to make inherent sense, even though its foundations in research have been hard to replicate.
Herzberg says that things like good pay and working conditions may decrease dissatisfaction, but they cannot make you satisfied in a positive way.

12. Hygiene Factors- Lead to No Dissatisfaction
Hygiene factors are limited in their motivational appeal and staying power
Company policy
Administration
Supervision
Working conditions
Salary
These are the hygiene factors that lead to less dissatisfaction.

13. Motivating Factors-Lead to Satisfaction
Motivators are know as drivers with high staying power
Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
These are motivating factors.
According to Herzberg, these factors will lead to high satisfaction.
Herzberg’s model makes sense for some individuals, but it may not explain everyone’s motivation.
Some people really do seem to be motivated by money.
It may the sequence of the rewards, such as intermittent rather than fixed, that leads to changes in behavior.
The same could be true of satisfaction.

14. McClelland's Theory of Needs
Need for achievement
Personal responsibility
Feedback
Moderate risk (50% chance)
Need for power
Need for affiliation
McClelland suggested several needs, but in organizational settings he found three that had the most impact.
He calls people with a strong desire to succeed high need achievers.
He carried out a number of studies profiling such people.
He found that they were most satisfied in situations where their chances of success were about fifty percent.
Any lower and they felt they had not overcome enough obstacles.
Any higher and they felt that the deck was stacked too highly against them.
Others have a strong need for influence over others or to be part of a group.
Neither of these needs makes for effective leadership.
Achievers are not afraid to stand out, which may hurt group membership.
The power-hungry may violate group norms against political activity and reduce their effectiveness as leaders.

15. Goal Setting Theory Set specific, difficult, but achievable goals
Provide feedback on goal achievement, preferably self generated
Ensure individual commitment to goal
Goal setting theory is related to decision-making and forms the basis management by objectives and Total Quality Management.
It suggests that when people set their own goals and can measure progress toward those goals, they will have a stronger commitment to complete the necessary tasks.

16. Reinforcement Theory
Behavior with positive consequences will tend to be repeated
Behavior with negative consequences will tend not be repeated
This theory ignores the inner state of the individual
It only looks at extrinsic rewards for desired actions
Reinforcement theory is an extension of Operant Conditioning.
It ignores intrinsic motivation and looks only at the extrinsic rewards that can be used to induce the desired actions.

17. Equity Theory
A theory of job motivation that emphasizes the role played by an individual’s belief in the fairness of rewards and punishments in determining his or her performance satisfaction
Individuals compare job inputs with outcomes
For most individuals, rewards must be perceived as fair in order to be motivating
Compare work reward ratio to those of relevant others
Make choices based on perceived level of inequity or equity ...
Equity theory suggests that individuals constantly make comparisons with others about how well their needs are being met.
If they believe that their efforts are not being rewarded fairly, they may choose to equalize the inequity.

18. Six Possible Responses to Inequity:
Change inputs (amount of work done)
Change outcomes (outputs)
Distort self-perception (self esteem)
Distort perception of others (objective observations)
Choose different reference point (relevant other)
Leave (exit job)
When inequity is detected, the individual has several choices:
This assumes that these choices are within the individual’s control to change.
Notice that actual productivity may not change if the reference point, the person whose rewards are the basis for comparison, can be changed.
Perceptual distortion means that individuals may change the way themselves or others view the outcomes they receive to make them seem more or less valuable.

19. Table Equity Propositions
When a person perceives an inequity and chooses to alter his or her output, they may increase or decrease their production.
They may also increase or decrease the quality of their output, as this table shows.

20. Expectancy Theory Examines Three Relationships
Will effort result in performance?
Will performance result in reward?
Will rewards result in achievement of personal goals?
Expectancy theory is closely related to equity theory. Rather than examining the ratio of costs to benefits, expectancy theory looks at three ratios or expectancies:
Effort/performance
Performance/reward
Reward/goal achievement
The higher these three expectancies, the greater an individual’s motivation. But if any one falls to zero, so does total motivation.

21. Four Methods for Behavior Modification
Positive Reinforcement
Pleasant consequences
Extinction
Absence of reinforcement
Avoidance Learning
Unpleasant consequences
Punishment
Strong negative consequences

22. Hammer’s Rules for Using Behavior Modification
Do NOT reward all individuals equally
Be aware that failure to respond can also modify behavior
Be sure to tell individuals what they can do to get reinforcement
Don’t punish in front of others
Be fair:
Over rewarding
Under rewarding / no recognition...

23. Performance Dimensions
Ability
Motivation is not the only factor leading to performance.
People are not motivated by Equity Theory, Need Theories, or Expectancies.
These are just ways of explaining and measuring their level of motivation.
Overall performance also depends on their ability and on the opportunities people are given to perform well.
Motivation
Performance
Opportunity

24. Some Notes on Motivating Professionals
Strong, long-term commitment to their field of expertise
Loyalty to profession not employer
Need to regularly update knowledge
Motivated by job challenge more than money or promotion
Rewarded by continuing education and control over job structure
Professionals create have a different situation from rank-and-file employees because their professional training creates strong ties outside the organizational boundary.
They need challenging work, ongoing training, and opportunities to update their contacts with members of their profession.
Reward systems for professionals must take these needs into account.

25. Notes on Motivating Temporary Workers No Simple Solutions.
Make permanent status an option
Offer training opportunities
Be careful mixing permanent workers and temps in same work group
Temporary workers make up a significant part of the workforce today.
For example, Manpower, Inc., a temporary agency, is the largest private employer in San Diego County, California.
While not all “temps” seek permanent work, many are interested in the “temp-to-perm” option.
When that is not a possibility, it may be worthwhile to offer temps additional training.
Mixing permanent workers with temps could lead to dissatisfaction because temps do not receive the same level of pay and benefits full time workers get. By the same token, permanent employees may get the message that their jobs are not valued and that they may be replaced by lower cost temporary workers.

26. Motivating the Diversified Work Force Requires Flexibility
Work schedules
Work hours
Job sharing
Compensation plans
Benefits
Child care
Physical work settings
Teamwork versus individual responsibility
Because a diversified workforce has a variety of needs, managers need a full range of options to motivate their employees.
Higher compensation may not always be the answer.
Individual incentives may not work as well as group incentives.
Some workers prefer more time with their families or help with child care expenses to more money in their paycheck.
Some employees would rather work in a relaxed, comfortable atmosphere, while others thrive on a high pressure “rock and roll” situation.

27. Key Issues in Motivation
Recognize individual differences
Use goals and feedback
Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them
Link rewards to performance
Check the system for equity
These major themes in motivating employees are also relevant when working with volunteers and team members from other organizations.
Even though they are in your pay, they still have needs that must be met if they are to continue participating the activities of the organization.

28. How a Typical Quality Circle Operates
Identify Problem
Decision
Select Problem
Quality circles are adapted from Japanese methods.
They empower workers to improve quality within their own group and across groups by seeking shared solutions to systemic problems.
As noted earlier in the text, optimizing techniques such as this one will suffer from cognitive limits, implicit choices, and other bounds to rationality.
Worse, a group may try to solve problems beyond its control which could lead to higher dissatisfaction if recommendations are not adopted by the rest of the organization.
Review Solution
Review Problem
Recommend Solution