1. Classical Period 1750-1830

2. Classicism In the middle of the 18th century, Europe began to move toward a new style in architecture, literature, and the arts, generally known as Classicism, which sought to emulate the ideals of Classical antiquity and especially those of Classical Greece. The new style was also a cleaner style —one that favored clearer divisions between parts, brighter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than complexity.

3. This taste for structural clarity worked its way into the world of music, moving away from the layered polyphony of the Baroque period, towards a style where a melody over a subordinate harmony —a combination called homophony— was preferred. polyphonymelodyharmonyhomophony This meant that the playing of chords, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part, became a much more prevalent feature of music. This, in turn, made the tonal structure of works more audible.chordstonalmore audible The new style was also pushed forward by changes in the economic order and in social structure. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility became the primary patrons of instrumental music, and there was a rise in the public taste for comic opera.opera

4. This led to changes in the way music was performed, the most crucial of which was the move to standard instrumental groups and the reduction in the importance of the continuo in the Classical period, all parts were noted specifically, though not always notated. Since polyphonic texture was no longer the main focus of music (excluding the development section) but rather a single melodic line with accompaniment, there was greater emphasis on notating that line for dynamics and phrasing.

5. Forms such as the concerto and sonata were more heavily defined and given more specific rules The symphony was created in this period (this is popularly attributed to Joseph Haydn). The concerto grosso (a concerto for more than one musician) began to be replaced by the solo concerto (a concerto featuring only one soloist), and therefore began to place more importance on the particular soloist's ability to show off.

6. Main characteristics Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than Baroque music and is less complex. It is mainly homophonic — melody above chordal accompaniment (but counterpoint is by no means forgotten, especially later in the period). homophoniccounterpoint Variety and contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before. – Variety of keys, melodies, rhythms and dynamics (using crescendo, diminuendo and sforzando), along with frequent changes of mood and timbre were more commonplace in the Classical period than they had been in the Baroque.crescendodiminuendosforzando

7. Melodies tended to be shorter than those of Baroque music, with clear-cut phrases and clearly marked cadences.cadences The Orchestra increased in size and range; the harpsichord continuo fell out of use, and the woodwind became a self-contained section. As a solo instrument, the harpsichord was replaced by the piano (or fortepiano).Orchestra woodwind Importance was given to instrumental music — the main kinds were sonata, trio, string quartet, symphony, concerto, serenade and divertimento. Sonata form developed and became the most important form.

8. Classical Forms Instrumental compositions of the classical period usually consist of several movements that contrast in tempo and character. Often four movements: – 1.Fast movement – 2. Slow movement – 3. Dance movement – 4. Fast movement – Symphonies, String quartets, Sonata

9. Sonata Form Sonata form (also sonata-allegro form) is a musical form that has been used widely since the early Classical period. While it is typically used in the first movement of multimovement pieces, it is sometimes employed in subsequent movements as well. It consists of three main sections: an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation.

10. It may begin with an introduction, which is, in general, slower than the main movement. In terms of structure, introductions are an upbeat before the main musical argument.introduction The first required section is the exposition. The exposition presents the primary thematic material for the movement: one or two theme groups, often in contrasting styles and in opposing keys, connected by a Bridge Passage (not to be confused with the term 'transition', which has a much different use). The exposition typically concludes with a closing theme, a codetta, or both.exposition themekeyscodetta The exposition is followed by the development where the harmonic and textural possibilities of the thematic material are explored.developmentharmonictextural The development then re-transitions back to the recapitulation where the thematic material returns in the tonic key, and for the recapitulation to complete the musical argument, material that has not been stated in the tonic key is "resolved" by being played, in whole or in part, in the tonic.recapitulationtonic The movement may conclude with a coda, beyond the final cadence of the recapitulation.codacadence

11. Theme and Variations Variation forms include ground bass, passacaglia, chaconne, and theme and variations. Ground bass, passacaglia and chaconne are typically based on brief ostinato motifs providing a repetitive harmonic basis and are also typically continuous evolving structures. Theme and variation forms are however based specifically on melodic variation, in which the fundamental musical idea, or theme, is repeated in altered form or accompanied in a different manner.

12. 'Theme and variation' structure generally begins with a theme (which is itself sometimes preceded by an introduction), typically between eight and thirty-two bars in length; each variation, particularly in music of the eighteenth century and earlier, will be of the same length and structure as the theme. – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote a great number of variations, such as the first movement of his Piano Sonata in A, K. 331, or the finale of his Clarinet Quintet. – Joseph Haydn specialized in sets of double variations, in which two related themes, usually minor and major, are presented and then varied in alternation; outstanding examples are the slow movement of his Symphony No. 103, the Drumroll, and the Variations in F minor for piano, H XVII:6.

13. Ludwig van Beethoven wrote many variation sets in his career. Some were independent sets, for instance the Diabelli Variations, Op. 120. Others form single movements or parts of movements in larger works, such as first movement of the Piano Sonata No. 12, Op. 26, or the variations in the final movement of the Third Symphony (Eroica). Variation sets also occur in several of his late works, such as the slow movement of his String Quartet No. 12, Op. 127, the second movement of his final Piano Sonata No. 32, Op. 111, and the slow movement of the Ninth Symphony. Franz Schubert wrote five variation sets using his own lieder as themes. Amongst them is the slow movement of his string quartet Death and the Maiden D. 810, an intense set of variations on his somber lied (D. 531) of the same title. Schubert's Piano Quintet in A (The Trout, D. 667) likewise includes variations on his song The Trout D. 550. The second movement of the Fantasie in C major comprises a set of variations on Der Wanderer; indeed the work as a whole takes its popular name from the lied.

14. Minuet and Trio A minuet, also spelled menuet, is a social dance of French origin for two people, usually in 3/4 time. The word was adapted from Italian minuetto and French menuet, meaning small, pretty, delicate, a diminutive of menu, from the Latin minutus; menuetto is a word that occurs only on musical scores. The name may refer to the short steps, pas menus, taken in the dance, popular group dances in early 17th- century France (Little 2001). At the period when it was most fashionable it was slow, soft, ceremonious, and graceful. Often used as the third movement of Classical symphonies, string quartets, etc.

15. The minuet movement Triple meter ¾ Moderate tempo ABA form: minuet (A), trio (B), minuet (A) Listening: – Mozart Eine Kleine Nachtmusik Third movement: Minuet

16. Sonata Rondo Form Sonata rondo form was a form of musical organization often used during the Classical music era. As the name implies, it is a blend of sonata form and rondo form. Rondo form involves the repeated use of a theme, set in the tonic key, with episodes, each involving a new theme, intervening among the repetitions, like this: – A B A C A D A... Usually the episodes (B, C, D, etc.) are in a different key from the tonic.

17. Sonata form involves an opening section in the tonic, followed by a transition to the dominant key. Together, these musical events form the exposition. The following section is the development, which usually employs material from the exposition, rearranging it in various ways and migrating to musically remote keys. In the recapitulation, the original opening material is repeated in some form, then the material that earlier moved to the dominant is repeated in some form--but this time in the tonic. In abstract terms, then, sonata form looks like this: [A B'] exp [C"] dev [A B] recap where a single prime (') means "in the dominant" and a double prime (") means "in remote keys".

18. The simplest kind of sonata rondo form is a sonata form that repeats the opening material in the tonic as the beginning of the development section. [A B'] exp [A C"] dev [A B] recap By adding in this extra appearance of A, the form reads off as AB'AC"AB, hence the alternation of A with "other" material that characterizes the rondo.

19. Classical Symphony A symphony is an extended musical composition in Western classical music, scored almost always for orchestra. "Symphony" does not necessarily imply a specific form, though most are composed according to the sonata principle. Many symphonies are tonal works in four movements with the first in sonata form.

20. For most of the Baroque period, the terms symphony and sinfonia were used for a range of different compositions, including instrumental pieces used in operas, sonatas and concertos—usually part of a larger work. The opera sinfonia, or Italian overture had, by the 18th century, a standard structure of three contrasting movements: fast, slow, fast and dance-like. It is this form that is often considered as the direct forerunner of the orchestral symphony. The terms "overture", "symphony" and "sinfonia" were widely regarded as interchangeable for much of the 18th century. Another important progenitor of the symphony was the ripieno concerto—a relatively little-explored form resembling a concerto for strings and continuo, but with no solo instruments.

21. 18 th Century Symphony The early "Italian" style of symphony, often used as overture and entr'acte in opera houses, became a standard three movement form: a fast movement, a slow movement, and then another fast movement. Mozart's early symphonies are in this layout. The early three-movement form was eventually replaced by a four-movement layout, through the addition of an additional middle movement, which was dominant in the latter part of the 18th century and most of the 19th century.

22. The normal four-movement form became, then – 1. an opening sonata or allegroallegro – 2. a slow movement, such as Adagio – 3. a minuet with trio or Scherzo (Beethoven) – 4. an allegro, rondo, or sonata Each movement is a self-contained composition with its own set of themes, but the movements balance and complement each other.

23. The Classical Concerto The Classical period brought the triumph of the solo concerto over the group or multiple concerto, assisted by the continued rise of the virtuoso soloist and the growing demand for up-to-date works for performance by amateurs. The concertos of this period show a broad transition from Baroque to Classical style, though many are more conservative than contemporaneous symphonies. Most are in three movements, though a significant minority adopt lighter two-movement patterns such as Allegro- Minuet and Allegro-Rondo. Dance and rondo finales are also frequent in three-movement concertos.

24. The Classical period also witnessed the rise of the keyboard concerto. Mozart’s 23 piano concertos are the crowning achievement of the concerto in the 18th century. Mozart’s approach in these concertos is often clearly symphonic, both in the application of formal symphonic principles-- The orchestra is rendered fully capable of sustaining a dramatic confrontation with the virtuosity and individuality of the soloist.

25. Ludwig van Beethoven’s five piano concertos date from between about 1793 and 1809, (there is an early work from 1784). They are longer than Mozart's concertos, and call for even more virtuosity from the soloist. Beethoven’s Violin Concerto (1806) exhibits similar achievements - Mozart’s five violin concertos are all early works written in Salzburg in 1775. Joseph Haydn’s concertos are mostly from his early career. Exceptions are the Piano Concerto in D, the Cello Concerto in D, and the Trumpet Concerto.

26. Classical Chamber Music Joseph Haydn is generally credited with creating the modern form of chamber music as we know it. In 83 string quartets, 45 piano trios, and numerous string trios, duos and wind ensembles. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart greatly expanded its vocabulary. (7 piano trios and 2 piano quartets) – Haydn’s piano trio vs. Mozart

27. Mozart introduced the newly invented clarinet into the chamber music arsenal – The Kegelstatt Trio for viola, clarinet and piano, K. 498, and the Quintet for Clarinet and String Quartet, K. 581. He wrote six string quintets for two violins, two violas and cello, which explore the rich tenor tones of the violas, adding a new dimension to the string quartet conversation. Six string quartets

28. Beethoven made his formal debut as a composer with three Piano Trios, Op. 1. Septet, Op. 20, established him as one of Europe's most popular composers. The septet, scored for violin, viola, cello, contrabass, clarinet, horn and bassoon, was a huge hit. It was played in concerts again and again. In his 17 string quartets,[24] composed over the course of 37 of his 56 years, Beethoven goes from classical composer par excellence to creator of musical Romanticism, and finally transcends classicism and romanticism to create a genre that defies categorization.

29. Opera Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text (called a libretto) and musical score. Opera incorporates many of the elements of spoken theatre, such as acting, scenery, and costumes and sometimes includes dance. The performance is typically given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble.

30. Operatic terminology The words of an opera are known as the libretto (literally "little book"). Some composers, notably Richard Wagner, have written their own libretti; others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e.g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Traditional opera, often referred to as "number opera", consists of two modes of singing: recitative, the plot- driving passages sung in a style designed to imitate and emphasize the inflections of speech, aria (an "air" or formal song) in which the characters express their emotions in a more structured melodic style.

31. Duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action. During the Baroque and Classical periods, recitative could appear in two basic forms: secco (dry) recitative, accompanied only by continuo, which was usually a harpsichord and a cello; or accompagnato (also known as strumentato) in which the orchestra provided accompaniment.

32. Mozart’s opera combined a superb sense of drama, harmony, melody, and counterpoint to write a series of comedies, notably Così fan tutte, The Marriage of Figaro, and Don Giovanni (in collaboration with Lorenzo Da Ponte) which remain among the most-loved, popular and well-known operas today.