“Treat others as you would like to be treated” MODULE 19 MOTIVATION “Treat others as you would like to be treated” How do human needs influence motivation to work? How do thought processes and decisions affect motivation to work? What role does reinforcement play in motivation? Motivation is often confused with getting others to do what you want. As you will see, this is only partially true.

MOTIVATION Human Needs MODULE GUIDE 19.1 Maslow described a hierarchy of needs topped by self-actualization. Alderfer’s ERG theory focuses on existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Herzberg’s two-factor theory focuses on higher-order need satisfaction. McClelland identified acquired needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. There are many different theories on motivation. Some of them are similar. Some are quite different.

MOTIVATION Human Needs accounts for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work. Need an unfulfilled physiological or psychological desire. This definition tells us what motivation does. However, it does not tell us what motivation is. This is an important distinction.

MOTIVATION Human Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s hierarchy of needs seems to indicate that higher level needs cannot be satisfied until lower needs are satisfied. This may be true. However, it is very likely that people move up and down Maslow’s scale during their life. Just because you are safe today, does not mean that you will be safe tomorrow.

MOTIVATION Human Needs Alderfer’s ERG Theory Existence Needs are desires for physiological and material well-being. Relatedness needs are desires for satis-fying interpersonal relationships. Relatedness Needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships. Growth Needs are desires for continued psychological growth and development. Aderfer ERG theory can be thought of as a short form version of Maslow’s hierarchy. Aderfer claimed that these needs exist, in various degrees, simultaneously.

MOTIVATION Human Needs Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory Hygiene Factor is found in the job context, such as working conditions, interpersonal relations, organizational policies, and salary. Motivator Factor is found in job content, such as a sense of achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, or personal growth. Herzberg defined motivation as “getting others to want to do what you want them to do.” There is a big difference between getting others to do something and getting them to want to do it.

MOTIVATION Human Needs McClelland’s Acquired Needs Need for Achievement is the desire to do something better, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks. Need for Power is the desire to control, influence, or be responsible for other people. Need for Affiliation Is the desire to establish and maintain good relations with other people. Although not exactly the same, McClelland’s acquired needs are similar to Aderfer’s ERG theory needs.

MOTIVATION Thought Processes and Decisions MODULE GUIDE 19.2 Equity theory explains how social comparisons can motivate individual behavior. Expectancy theory considers motivation = expectancy x instrumentality x valence Goal-setting theory says that well chosen and well set goals can be motivating. The following theories attempt to more closely relate individual needs to work performance.

MOTIVATION Thought Processes and Decisions Adams’ Equity Theory Explains how social comparisons can motivate individual behavior Any perceived inequities will motivate us to behave in a manner that will change them Adam’s believed that humans seek equity in their personal and professional lives. If they perceive that they are not being treated fairly, they will take action to change the situation.

MOTIVATION Thought Processes and Decisions Vroom’s Expectancy Theory motivation = expectancy x instrumentality x valence Expectancy a person’s belief that working hard will result in achieving a desired level of task performance Instrumentality a person’s belief that successful performance will lead to rewards and other potential outcomes Valence the value a person assigns to the possible rewards and other work-related outcomes. Vroom argued that employees are motivated by their expectations regarding the magnitude of their efforts and the potential compensation that they will receive as well as the probability of receiving the additional compensation.

MOTIVATION Thought Processes and Decisions Vroom’s Expectancy Theory This chart suggests how Vroom’s expectancy theory might be applied.

MOTIVATION Thought Processes and Decisions Locke’s Goal-setting Theory emphasizes the motivational power of goals that are specific and challenging. MANAGEMENT TIPS • Set specific goals—avoid more generally stated ones, such as “Do your best.” • Set challenging goals—when realistic and attainable, they motivate better than easy ones. • Build commitment—people work harder for goals they accept and believe in. • Clarify priorities—expectations should be clear on which goals to pursue first. • Provide feedback—people need to know how well they are doing. • Reward results—don’t let accomplishments pass unnoticed. Remember that, although goals should be challenging, they must be achievable. Employees will not pursue unrealistic goals for very long.

MOTIVATION Reinforcement MODULE GUIDE 19.3 Operant conditioning influences behavior by controlling its consequences. Positive reinforcement connects desirable behavior with pleasant consequences. Punishment connects undesirable behavior with unpleasant consequences. Reinforcement theory addresses how to get employees to do what you want them to do. This is not the same definition put forth by Herzberg which is getting employees to want to do what you want them to do.

MOTIVATION Reinforcement The law of effect states that behavior followed by a pleasant consequence is likely to be repeated; behavior followed by an unpleasant consequence is unlikely to be repeated. This is the basic belief behind reinforcement.

MOTIVATION Reinforcement Operant Conditioning – B. F. Skinner Influences behavior by controlling its consequences Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by making a desirable consequence contingent on its occurrence. Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by making the avoidance of an undesirable consequence contingent on its occurrence. Punishment discourages by making an unpleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence. Extinction discourages a behavior by making the removal of a desirable consequence contingent on its occurrence.

MOTIVATION Reinforcement Operant Conditioning – B. F. Skinner Here is an example of how reinforcement theory might be applied in a production environment. Notice the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment.