1. Chapter 6

2.  DEFINITION:  Articulating a clear vision and energizing and enabling organizational members so that they understand the part they play in achieving organizational goals;  Leading is one of the four principal tasks of Management. .

3.  Leadership is the process by which a person exerts influence over other people and inspires, motivates and directs their activities to help achieve group or organizational goals.

4.  Leader is the person who exerts such influence. When leaders are effective the influence they exert over others helps in achieving group or organizational performance goals. When leaders are ineffective their influence does not contribute to,and often detracts from goal attainment

5.  DEFINITION  MOTIVATION may be defined as psychological forces that determine the direction of a person’s behavior in an organization,a person’s level of effort and a person’s level of persistence in the face of obstacles.  Motivation is central to Management because it explains why people behave the way they do in organizations.  Motivation can come from Intrinsic or extrinsic sources.

6.  1. Formulated by Victor H.Vroom in 1960. Is the theory that motivation will be high when workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high performance and high performance leads to the attainment of desired outcomes.  Expectancy is a person’s perception about the extent to which effort results in a certain level of performance.  According to Expectancy theory, high motivation results from high levels of expectancy,instrumentality and valence.

7.  2.– Focus on what needs people are trying to satisfy at work and what outcomes will satisfy those needs.  Need theory complement Expectancy theory by exploring in depth which outcomes motivate people to perform at a high level.

9.  3.Formulated by Abraham Maslow. Is an arrangement of five basic needs that according to Maslow motivate behavior. Maslow proposed that the lowest level of unmet needs is the prime motivator and that only one level of needs is motivational at a time.  Hierarchy of Needs  High to Low  Self-actualization needs- The needs to realize one’s full potential as a human being  Esteem needs – The needs to feel good about one self and one’s capabilities, to be resspected by others,and to recive recognition and appreciation. 

11.  Belongingness needs – Needs for social ineraction,friendship,affection and love  Safety needs – Needs for security,stability, and a safe enviroment.  Physiological needs- Basic neeeds for thingn such as food,water,and shelter that must be met in order for a person to survive.  The lowest level of unsatisfied needs motivates behavior; once this level of needs is satisfied, a person tries to satisfy the needs of the next level as above.

12.  Is the theory that three universal needs – for existence, relatedness, and growth,- constitute a hierarchy of needs and motivate behavior. Alderfer proposed that needs at more than one level can be motivational at the same time.  NEEDS: HIGH – LOW

13.  1. Growth needs: The needs of self-development and creative and productive work.  2. Relatedness needs : The needs to have good interpersonal relations, to share thoughts and feelings, and to have open two-way communication.  3. Existence needs: Basic needs for food,water, clothing,shelter and secure and safe environment.  As lower level needs are satisfied a person is motivated to satisfy higher level needs.  ERG theory collapses the five categories of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into THREE. Unlike Maslow Alderfer believes that a person can be motivated by needs at more than one level at the same time.

15.  Definition: A need theory that distinguishes between motivator needs (related to the nature of work itself) and hygiene needs (related to the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed) and proposes that motivator needs must be met for motivation and job satisfaction to be high.  Motivator needs are related to the nature of the work itself.  Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context in which the work itself is performed.  Outcome such as interesting work, sense of accomplishment and achievement,autonomy, responsibility to grow and develop on the job, working conditions, pay etc.

17.  McClelland’s THEORY OF Needs for Achievement, Affiliation and Power.  Need for Achievement.-The extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence.  Need for Affiliation-The extent to which an individual is concerned about establishing and maintaining good interpersonal relations,being liked,and having the people around him or her get along with each other.  Need of Power.- The extent to which an individual desires to control or influence others.

18.  A THEORY OF MOTIVATION that focuses on people’s perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes relative to their work inputs.  EQUITY THEORY complements expectancy and Need theories by focusing on how people perceive the relationship between the outcomes they receive from their jobs and organizations and the inputs they contribute.

20.  EQUITY exists when a person perceives his or her own outcome – input ratio to be equal to a referent’s outcome-input ratio.  INEQUITY –lack of fairness, exists when a person’s outcome – input ratio is not perceived to be equal to a referent’s. There are two types of inequity: 1) UNDERPAYMENT inequity 2. Overpayment inequity  A manager motivates them to restore equity and bring balance eg. Increase or decrease of salaries, increase/decrease of working hours etc.

21.  A theory that focuses on identifying the types of goals that are most effective in producing high levels of motivation and performance and explaining why goals have these effects.  Focuses on motivating workers to contribute their inputs to their jobs and organizations.  IT IS SIMILAR TO EXPECTANCY THEORY AND EQUITY THEORY but goal setting theory goes a step further by considering as well how managers can ensure that organizational members focus their inputs in the direction of high performance and the achievement of organiziatonal goals.

23.  Theories that focus on increasing employee motivation and performance by linking the outcomes that employees receive to the performance of desired behavior and the attanement of goals.  LEARNING can be defined as a relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior that results from practice to experience.  OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY i.e. people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences  AND SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY ARE LEARNING THEORIES ALSO WHICH PROVIDE THE MOST GUIDANCE TO MANAGERS IN THEIR EFFORTS TO HAVE HIGHLY MOTIVATED WORKFORCE.

24.  POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT- GIVING PEOPLE OUTCOMES THEY DESIRE WHEN THEY PERFORM ORGANIZATIONALLY FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORS.  NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT. ELIMINATING OR REMOVING UNDESIRED OUTCOMES WHEN PEOPLE PERFORM ORGANIZATIONAL FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORS.  IDENTIFYING THE RIGHT BEHAVIOR FOR REINFORCEMENT- A) EXTINCTION- CURTAILING THE PERFORMANCE OF DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORS BY ELIMINATING WHATEVER IF REINFORCING THEM B) PUNISHMENT – ADMINISTERING AN UNDESIRED OR NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCE WHEN DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR OCCURS.

26.  A theory that takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by people’s thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other people’s behavior.  Vicarious Learning often called observational learning AS PART OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY occurs when a person (the learner) becomes motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person perform it and be reinforced for doing so.

27.  Self reinforce- Any desired or attractive outcome or reward that a person gives to himself or herself for good performance.  Self efficacy- A Person’s belief about his or her ability to perform a behavior succesfully.

28.  PAY AND MOTIVATION  EACH OF THE THEORIES DESCRIBED ABOVE REGARDING MOTIVATION ALLUDES TO THE IMPORTANCE OF PAY AND SUGGESTS THAT PAY SHOULD BE BASED ON PERFORMANCE.  1. Merit Pay Plan  2. Salary Increase or bonus  etc