第一章 语法层次和基本句子结构 内容提要： ◆语法在语言系统中的地位语法在语言系统中的地位 ◆语法的五个层次：词素、词、词组、分句、 句子语法的五个层次：词素、词、词组、分句、 句子 ◆分句结构和基本句型分句结构和基本句型

语法在语言系统中的地位 What is language? “a system of symbols designed for human communication” Meaning for communication Combine words into larger units (phrases, clauses, sentences) based on grammatical rules Combine sounds into larger meaningful units (morphemes, words) based on phonological rules Sound System (meaningless on its own) What is grammar? “a system of rules needed to form and interpret sentences”

The five ranks of grammatical hierarchy Morpheme Word Phrase Clause Sentence

Sentence Clause NP VP PrepP Det N Aux Adv MV Prep Det N These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improving in their writ-ing Sentence Clause NP VP PrepP Det N Aux Adv MV Prep Det N These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improving in their writ-ing

Morpheme the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech.

Word In terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two main groups: closed-class words and open- class word. Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are "closed" or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members. Prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and auxiliaries belong to this class. Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs belong to this class.

Phrase “a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head” The general pattern of a noun phrase is: (determiner + ) (pre-modifier + ) noun ( + post-modifier), eg. There is a pretty girl in blue jeans. The general pattern of a verb phrase is : (auxiliaries) ( + modifier) main verb, eg. The matter will be quickly forgotten.

The general pattern of an adjective phrase is: (modifier + ) adjective ( + postmodifier / complementation), eg. This summering place is very famous in the world. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is: (modifier + ) adverb ( + postmodifier), eg. She spoke very clearly indeed. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is: (modifier + )preposition + complementation, eg. Much to our surprise, he passed the exam with high marks.

Clause A clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of "subject + predicate" 1) Independent and dependent clauses In terms of grammatical function, a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from a dependent clause which forms only part of another clause or of a phrase.

2) Simple and complex clauses When a clause consists of only one construction of "subject + predicate", it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence. When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence.

3) Main and subordinate clauses In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause. 4) Finite and non-finite clauses A clause can be finite or non-finite. A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a non-finite clause is a clause with a non- finite verb phrase as its predicator. 5) Verbless clauses When a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element, it is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is just a construction of "subject + predicate" without any form of verb element.

Sentence The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.

According to structure, a sentence can be a simple sentence, a compound sentence, a complex sentence, or a compound-complex sentence. A simple sentence is one that comprises only one independent clause. Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence. When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s), this makes a complex sentence. Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence. According to function, a sentence can be a Statement, a Command, a Question, or an Exclamation.

分句结构和基本句型 Clause analysis Basic clause types

Clause analysis Subject + predicate predicate verb object complement adverbial eg. They made him monitor last year.

Basic clause types (1) SVC (subject + linking verb + complement) eg. I am a teacher. (2) SV (subject + intransitive verb) eg. He did not come. (3) SVA (subject + intransitive verb + adverbial) eg. She lives in Hawaii.

(4) SVO (subject + mono-transitive verb + object) eg. My friend brought a new car. (5) SVOA (subject + mono-transitive verb + object + adverbial) eg. His sister put the book on the shelf. (6) SVOC (subject + mono-transitive verb + object +complement) eg. They made him monitor last year. (7) SVoO (subject + di-transitive verb +indirect object + direct object) eg. She gave her son a large bar of chocolate.