1. C HAPTER 11 Grammar Fundamentals

2. T HE P ARTS OF S PEECH AND T HEIR F UNCTIONS Nouns name people, places things, qualities, or conditions Subject of a verb performs the verb’s action Object of a verb receives the verb’s action Object of a preposition acts as an indirect object An appositive renames a previous noun A subject complement completes the subject after the linking verb

3. T HE P ARTS OF S PEECH AND T HEIR F UNCTIONS, CONT ’ D Pronouns refer to nouns Categories of pronouns Personal pronouns refer to people, places, and things Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses and refer to preceding nouns Interrogative pronouns introduce questions Demonstrative pronouns point to nouns/pronouns Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specified individuals and groups Intensive, reflexive, and reciprocal pronouns refer to various relationships with preceding nouns/pronouns

4. T HE P ARTS OF S PEECH AND T HEIR F UNCTIONS, CONT ’ D Verbs convey an action, a state of being, or combine with a main verb to express possibility or a complex temporal action Types of verbs Action verbs convey a physical or mental action e.g., talk, swim, think, argue, hope, propose Linking verbs connect the subject and predicate (subject complement) e.g., is, are, was, were, become, feel, appear, seem Helping (auxiliary) verbs combine with main verbs to express conditions and complex tenses e.g., should talk, is swimming, will think

5. T HE P ARTS OF S PEECH AND T HEIR F UNCTIONS, CONT ’ D Adjectives and adverbs modify other parts of speech Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and complete sentences Prepositions join nouns/pronouns to the sentence, helping them modify another part of speech

6. T HE P ARTS OF S PEECH AND T HEIR F UNCTIONS, CONT ’ D Conjunctions have various joining functions Coordinating conjunctions join equal grammatical units, such as independent clauses Subordinating conjunctions join dependent to independent clauses Adverbial conjunctions are adverbs used to connect independent clauses Correlative conjunctions join in pairs

7. S ENTENCES A sentence expresses a completed thought Contains a group of grammatically linked words with subject and predicate and needing nothing else to complete it Simple subject consists of noun/pronoun Complete subject consists of noun/pronoun + modifiers Simple predicate consists of verb that tells us about subject Complete predicate consists of verb + modifiers, objects

8. S ENTENCES, CONT ’ D Imperative sentence issues order or demand May consist only of verb with subject “you” implied A phrase is a grammatically linked group of words lacking a subject and predicate A prepositional phrase is introduced by a preposition and modifies a noun/pronoun or verb A participle phrase modifies a noun A gerund phrase acts as a noun An infinitive phrase can act as a noun or modify a noun or verb

9. S ENTENCES, CONT ’ D A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a predicate An independent clause can stand on own as it expresses a complete thought A dependent clause begins with subordinating conjunction and does not express a complete thought

10. S ENTENCES, CONT ’ D Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences Type 1: lacks a subject, predicate, or both To fix: add missing part(s) Type 2: dependent clause fragment lacks complete thought/ idea To fix: add independent clause

11. S ENTENCES, CONT ’ D Errors of joining A run-on sentence consists of two independent clauses with no punctuation in between To fix: add a period between clauses or other appropriate punctuation such as a comma + a coordinating conjunction A comma splice consists of two independent clauses joined only by comma To fix: add a period between clauses or other appropriate punctuation such as a comma + a coordinating conjunction