Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity

But: Relatively few documented differences –Gender stereotypes suggest more differences than are actually documented by research Even documented differences are relatively small in size –Average performance of males and females is not extremely different

Figure 15.3 A typical distribution of scores Siegler, DeLoache and Eisenberg: How Children Develop, Second Edition Copyright © 2006 by Worth Publishers

Gender Typing Process by which a child: –Becomes aware of his or her gender –Acquires information about the characteristics and behavior viewed as appropriate for males or females (gender stereotypes) –Acquires the characteristics and behaviors viewed as appropriate for either males or females (gender roles)

Development of Gender Awareness By 2.5 to 3 years, children label their own sex and that of other people Do not yet understand that sex is a permanent characteristic

Development of Gender Stereotypes By 2.5 years, children have some knowledge of gender stereotypes Over the preschool/early school years, learn more about toys, activities, and achievement domains considered appropriate for boys versus girls –Ex (achievement): boys are good at math; girls are good at English

By late elementary school, children know gender stereotypes associated with psychological characteristics (personality traits) –Ex: males are assertive, aggressive, ambitious; females are emotional, nurturing, dependent

Preschoolers’ gender stereotypes tend to be rigid –Don’t usually realize that characteristics associated with sex (e.g., activities, clothing) don’t determine whether one is male or female May be one reason they treat gender stereotypes as “rules” rather than as beliefs

By elementary school, children’s gender stereotypes are more flexible –Understand that stereotypes are beliefs, not “rules” –However, older children do not necessarily approve of “cross-gender” behavior

Development of Gender Role Behavior Between approximately months, children begin to show sex-typed toy preferences Sex-typed toy play increases through the preschool years Children begin to avoid peers who violate gender roles

Gender segregation develops by ages 2 to 3 years –Tendency to associate with same-sex playmates Typically lasts until around the onset of puberty As children progress through elementary school, girls’ gender role behavior becomes more flexible

Gender Intensification: –Greater conformity to “traditional” gender roles, especially for girls, in early adolescence Increased pressure from parents and peers for conformity –Gender intensification declines over the course of adolescence

Biological Influences on Gender Typing (Hormonal Influences) Experimental animal studies indicate that exposure to androgens (male sex hormones): –Increases active play in male and female mammals –Promotes male-typical sexual behavior and aggression and suppresses maternal caregiving behavior in a wide variety of species

Humans: Cannot do experimental research for ethical reasons –Correlational research

In boys, naturally occurring variations in androgen levels are positively correlated with –Amount of rough-and-tumble play –Levels of physical aggression

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) –Disorder in which child is exposed to high levels of androgens from the prenatal period onward –Compared to girls without CAH, girls with CAH show Higher activity levels Greater interest in “male-typical” toys, activities, and occupations Better spatial/mathematical abilities

Environmental Influences on Gender Typing Social Learning Theory –Gender typing results from Observational learning –By watching male and female “models”, children learn “appropriate” appearance, activities/occupations, and behavior for each sex Rewards and punishments associated with gender- typed behavior –Rewards for conforming to appropriate gender role and lack of rewards and/or punishment for failure to conform

Parental Behavior On average, data suggest that differences in parental treatment of boys and girls are not large Does not mean that parental behavior is unimportant because: –Younger children receive more direct “training” from parents about gender roles than do older children –Parents vary in the extent to which they practice differential treatment

Evidence for Differential Treatment Some data indicate that parents –Provide gender-stereotyped toys (e.g., vehicles, dolls) –Are more responsive when children engage in “gender-appropriate” play But data are not always consistent across studies –Parents also provide gender-neutral toys for children

Gender-stereotyped toys may encourage different behaviors, characteristics, or abilities in males and females –Parents give toys that encourage action and competition to boys (e.g., toy weapons, toy vehicles, construction toys and tools, sports equipment) –Parents give toys that encourage nurturance, cooperation, and physical attractiveness to girls (e.g., dolls/stuffed animals, toy dishes, jewelry, jump ropes)

Other evidence indicates that parents encourage different behaviors in boys and girls –More likely to encourage independence in boys Respond more positively when boys demand attention, are highly active, or try to take toys from others More likely to –Refuse or ignore a son’s request for help –Challenge boys in teaching situations (e.g., offer scientific explanations, ask high-level questions) –Assign household chores that are outside the house (e.g., yard work, taking out the trash)

–More likely to encourage closeness and dependence in girls More likely to: –Direct play activities –Provide help –Engage in conversations –Talk about emotions –Assign chores inside the house

Differential treatment of boys and girls may be relatively subtle –Data indicate gender differences in parent- child communication

–Parents more likely to offer scientific explanations to sons than to daughters (at a museum) Ex: “When you turn that fast, it makes more electricity” versus “Turn that handle” –Mothers more likely to give boys greater freedom (autonomy) to make decisions Ex: “When do you think would be a good time for you to do your music practice?” versus “Do your practicing right after dinner”

Parental Beliefs Parental beliefs are likely to influence parental behavior toward children –Ex: On average, parents rate sons as more competent in math/science than daughters even when there is no difference in performance

Parents’ beliefs about their children’s abilities in specific areas/subjects are related to children’s –Self-perceptions of their abilities in those subjects –Effort in those subjects –Later performance in those subjects

Cognitive theories emphasize children’s active role in the process of gender typing (self-socialization)

Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg) Three Stages: –Basic Gender Identity: Recognition that one is a boy or a girl –Emerges between 2.5 and 3 years

–Gender Stability Understanding that gender is stable over time –Emerges between 3 and 5 years

–Gender Constancy/Consistency Understanding that gender is constant/consistent across situations regardless of appearance or activities –Emerges between 5 and 7 years

Kohlberg: Gender constancy leads to gender typing –Why is this incorrect?

Gender Schema Theory: Children construct gender schemas –Organized mental representations incorporating information about gender Include children’s own experiences and information conveyed by others, including gender stereotypes Schemas are dynamic—change as children acquire additional information

Once children achieve basic gender identity, they are motivated to conform to gender roles Motivated to prefer, pay attention to, and remember more about others of their own sex Children use gender schemas to process information and guide their behavior

Evidence: Gender Schema Theory Children use gender labels given to toys to guide their behavior –Gender-neutral, unfamiliar toys/objects labeled as “for girls” or “for boys” Children prefer the toys/objects consistent with their gender

Children show biases in their memory for information about gender –More likely to accurately remember information that is consistent with gender stereotypes –More likely to forget or distort information that is inconsistent with gender stereotypes