Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

What is good about children today? What is bad about children today? INTRODUCTION

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT? Dimensions of Development Biological Cognitive SocioEmotional BioPsychoSocial Development Systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death or pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through death.

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE CHANGES IN DEVELOPMENT ARE THE RESULT OF BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT Prenatal period Middle and late childhood AdolescenceInfancyEarly childhood

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cohort effects – generational effects Today’s children are the Millennials Chacteristics: Ethnic diversity Connection to technology but not tech savy Socially responsible Stressed, pressured Special, sheltered, narcissistic AGE AND COHORT EFFECTS

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Nature vs. nurture Continuity vs. discontinuity Early vs. later experience Stability vs. change Active vs passive ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychoanalytic theories: Freud and Erikson Behavior is a surface characteristic Need to understand the symbolic workings of the mind Early experiences with parents are emphasized THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT ?

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) Parts of personality Id Ego Superego ?

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES Fixation: Too much or too little gratification

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Erik Erikson (1902–1994) Modified and expanded Freud’s theory Psychosocial crises Identity Differences from psychosexual development Social interactions Conscious Active actions Eight stages ?

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The contributions of psychoanalytic theories include these ideas: Early experiences Family relationships Developmental understanding of personality Conscious and unconscious EVALUATING THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Focuses on children’s mental processes How children perceive and mentally represent the world 1.Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Cognitive-developmental theory 2.Information-processing theory 3.Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory ?

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PIAGET’S COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY Worked with Binet on IQ tests for children Children’s wrong answers Children are “natural physicists” – They test hypotheses about the world Developmental Think different at different ages

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. PIAGET’S BASIC CONCEPTS Scheme: An organized understanding of something Adaptation: Organize our world by interacting with the environment 1.Assimilation Fitting something new into an existing scheme 2.Accommodation Adjusting scheme to a new object or event Equilibration Restore cognitive balance

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY Influenced by the concepts of computer science Input, Storage, Processing, Output Encoding Memory Retrieval Software and Hardware Mental processes Brain

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Vygotsky’s theory: Culture and social interact to guide cognitive development Thoughts are “created” by the culture we live in and the tools we use Cognitions are created and live in our social world LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Primary contributions: Emphasize conscious thinking Active construction of understanding Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories: Developmental changes in children’s thinking Information-processing theory: Detailed descriptions of cognitive processes EVALUATING THE COGNITIVE THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES Behaviorism - John B. Watson Classical conditioning - Ivan Pavlov Operant conditioning - B. F. Skinner Observable Behavior; individual passively learn behaviors Social Cognitive Theory Observational learning – Albert Bandura Active participants in learning

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Pavlov’s classical conditioning A neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response originally produced by another stimulus Skinner’s operant conditioning The consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence A behavior followed by: A rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur A punishing stimulus is less likely to recur BEHAVIORAL THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Albert Bandura Added Social and Cognitive influences to behaviorism Observational Learning Reciprocal Determinism (B  E  P) Child is an active learner

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Contributions: Importance of scientific research Environmental determinants of behavior Social Cognitive Theory: Person/cognitive factors EVALUATING THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Ethology: Biology, evolution and critical/sensitive periods Instinctive behavior patterns Charles Darwin & Konrad Lorenz Pre-wired Fixed action patterns (FAPs) Example Lorenz’s work on attachment during the first year Imprinting ETHOLOGICAL THEORY

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. THE ECOLOGICAL THEORY Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) Reciprocal interactions between individual and their environment. Not a Developmental Theory! Focuses on systems children participate in

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE A COMPARISON OF THEORIES AND ISSUES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Scientific research is objective, systematic, and testable It reduces the likelihood that information will be based on personal beliefs, opinions, and feelings THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Scientific research is based on the scientific method Scientific method: An approach that can be used to obtain accurate information It includes these steps: Conceptualize the problem Collect data Draw conclusions Revise research conclusions and theory THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Theory: An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and make predictions Hypothesis: A specific assumption or prediction that can be tested to determine its accuracy THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. To be effective, observations have to be systematic Where should be observations made? Laboratory: A controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the “real world” are removed Naturalistic observation: Observing behavior in real- world settings OBSERVATION

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Survey and interview Standardized test – uniform procedures Case study – in-depth on individual Physiological measures OTHER RESEARCH METHODS

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Descriptive research: A research design that has the purpose of observing and recording behavior Correlational research: A research design whose goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics Correlation coefficient: A number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables RESEARCH DESIGNS

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Experiment: A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated, while all other factors are held constant Independent variable (gets manipulated) Dependent variable (gets measured) Control group (forms baseline measure) Experimental group (gets manipulated) Random assignment (assignment by chance) RESEARCH DESIGNS

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cross-sectional approach: A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time Longitudinal approach: A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Conducting ethical research Protect rights of research subjects Do not cause any harm Adhere to code of ethics Informed consent Confidentiality Debriefing Deception RESEARCH CHALLENGES

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Gender bias Preconceived ideas about female and male abilities, magnifying differences found Cultural and ethnic bias Excluding minorities, preconceived ideas of not being ‘average’ Ethnic gloss: Use of ethnic label portraying ethnic groups as more homogeneous than they really are MINIMIZING BIAS