Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed) Chapter 8 Learning James A. McCubbin, PhD Clemson University Worth Publishers

Learning  What is Learning?  relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.

Learning zMost psychologists believe that learning can best be measured through changes in behavior.

Different Types of Learning Classical Conditioning- learn by association of stimuli Operant Conditioning- learn through reinforcement or learning based on the association of consequences with one’s behavior. Social Learning -learn by observing & imitating others. Cognitive Learning -learn through mental processes.

Association  We learn by association  Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence  i.e.-walk far away from the swings to avoid getting hit.  Associative Learning  learning that two events occur together  two stimuli  a response and its consequences

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning  We learn to associate two stimuli  Learning that takes place without any choice.

Classical Conditioning-  Ivan Pavlov   Russian physician/ neurophysiologist  Nobel Prize in 1904  studied digestive secretions in dogs

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist & absent minded professor with a hot temper. Would yell at his assistants for any slight mistake or fine them if they were late to work. He discovered that dogs learned to pair the sounds of the environment where they were fed, with the food that was being given to them & would salivate upon hearing the sounds.

zHis conclusion: that people and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli with other stimuli. zWhat is a stimulus? -anything that causes a reaction zWhat is a response? -reaction to the stimulus

Classical Conditioning  Pavlov’s device for recording salivation

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment Before Conditioning During ConditioningAfter Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) Neutral stimulus (tone) No salivation UCR (salivation) Neutral stimulus (tone) UCS (food in mouth) UCR (salivation) CS (tone) CR (salivation)

Classical Conditioning  Classical Conditioning  organism comes to associate two stimuli  a subject comes to respond to a neutral stimulus as he would to another non- neutral stimulus by learning to associate the 2 stimuli.

Classical Conditioning  Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)  stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response  Unconditioned Response (UCR)  unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus  salivation when food is in the mouth

Classical Conditioning  Conditioned Stimulus (CS)  The neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response  Conditioned Response (CR)  learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus. (The CR is usually the same as the UCR)

Classical Conditioning  Acquisition  the initial stage in classical conditioning  the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response

Classical Conditioning  Extinction  The disappearance or diminishing of a CR.

Classical Conditioning  Spontaneous Recovery  reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR  Stimulus Generalization  tendency for stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses

Classical Conditioning  Discrimination  in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS

Behaviorism  John B. Watson  viewed psychology as objective science  generally agreed-upon consensus today  recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes  not universally accepted by all schools of thought today

Aversive conditioning zConditioning to have a negative response

Mary Cover Jones

-student of Watson -wondered if she could cure a child of a terrible fear -Subject was Peter, 3 year old who feared rabbits. Jones brought rabbit into room and gave Peter food he liked. Peter learned to associate the pleasure of food with his feared object, & lost his fear of rabbits.

Operant Conditioning  We learn to associate a response and its consequence

Edward Thorndike

Law of Effect  Edward Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.  Thorndike believed that learning is governed by the law of effect. Instrumental learning -responses are strengthened when they are instrumental in producing rewards.

Operant Conditioning  Operant Conditioning  type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

Operant Conditioning  B.F. Skinner ( )  elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect  developed behavioral technology

Operant Conditioning zSkinner coined the term operant conditioning, believed that how we turn out in life is the result of what we learn from all of the operations we make over the years.

Operant Chamber  Skinner Box  chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer  contains devices to record responses

REINFORCER Reinforcer is the item that is the reward. (Food, water, candy, money, extra credit) Primary Reinforcer: a reward that is necessary for survival Secondary Reinforcer: a reward that we value

Reinforcement is the process or act itself, of giving the reward. Reinforcement is a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior

Two Types of Reinforcement POSITIVE- refers to the addition of getting something that is pleasant. Examples: NEGATIVE – refers to The removal of something that is unpleasant. Examples:

EXAMPLES 1.We give the rat in the Skinner box food when he presses a lever. positive reinforcement 2.If we terminate a loud buzzing noise in the Skinner box. negative reinforcement

PUNISHMENT IS ANYTHING THAT DECREASES THE LIKELIHOOD OF A BEHAVIOR. (Don’t get this confused with negative reinforcement.)  aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows  powerful controller of unwanted behavior -If we use an electric shock, every time a rat touches a lever, that is punishment.

Shaping & Chaining- are techniques to teach more complex responses.  Shaping  operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal (learn how to swim or play the piano) Chaining -Reinforcing the different steps in a sequence.

Operant Conditioning

Schedules of Reinforcement (methods of)  Continuous Reinforcement  reinforcing the desired response each time a behavior occurs.  Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement  reinforcing a response only sometimes  results in slower acquisition  greater resistance to extinction  4 types of partial reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement  Fixed Ratio (FR)  reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses  faster you respond the more rewards you get  “Rent 10 and get 1 free”  Piece work

Schedules of Reinforcement  Variable Ratio (VR)  reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of correct responses  like gambling, lottery tickets  very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability

Schedules of Reinforcement  Fixed Interval (FI)  reinforces the first correct response only after a specified time has passed.  response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near  Quiz every Friday

Schedules of Reinforcement  Variable Interval (VI)  reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals  produces slow steady responding  like pop quiz

Cognition and Operant Conditioning  Cognitive Map  mental representation of the layout of one’s environment  Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it  Latent Learning  learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Cognition and Operant Conditioning  Overjustification Effect  the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do  the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task  Example: professional athlete

Cognition and Operant Conditioning  Intrinsic Motivation  Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective  Extrinsic Motivation  Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments

Observational Learning  Observational Learning  learning by observing others  Modeling  process of observing and imitating a specific behavior  Prosocial Behavior  positive, constructive, helpful behavior  opposite of antisocial behavior, which is negative, destructive, unhelpful behavior

Observational Learning  Mirror Neurons  frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so  may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

Albert Bandura and Observational Learning

The Bobo Doll Experiment

zIn 1960 Bandura conducted a groundbreaking experiment in observational learning. zKnown as the Bobo Doll experiment. zA child was playing in a room when an adult in the room began a series of violent behaviors towards an inflatable, Bobo doll.

zThe adult kicked, pushed, threw, punched the Bobo doll and said things like: “Sock him in the nose”, “Hit him down”, “Kick him.” zThen the child was taken to a room with many toys & was happily playing. The child was interrupted & taken to another room that just had the Bobo doll.

zChildren who had observed an adult behaving aggressively with Bobo exhibited more aggression than other children who had not observed the adult model. zThose that had observed the attack were more aggressive & mimicked exactly the words & behaviors they had observed.

Martin Seligman

LEARNED HELPLESSNESS - A condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail; resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable, helpless. -Martin Seligman -1998, President of the APA -developed Positive Psychology -believes that L.H. is one cause of major depression.

-Learning strategies can affect a person’s relationship to the environment. -ex: person learns that no matter what they do, their actions have no affect, that person might become lazy or feel helpless and thus stop trying & think negatively about themselves.