Social and Personality Development in Early Adulthood Chapter 14: Social and Personality Development in Early Adulthood

In This Chapter Theories of social and personality development Intimate relationships Parenthood and other relationships The role of the worker

Theories of Social and Personality Development Erikson Intimacy versus Isolation Stage Intimacy: Capacity to engage in supportive, affectionate relationship without losing one’s own sense of self Isolation: Results from relationships that are inadequate, lack of self-disclosure, and unresolved identity crises

Theories of Social and Personality Development Intimacy versus Isolation Stage Developmental task of stage is to establish intimate bonds of love and friendship Barriers to intimacy Supports to intimacy Psychological conflict of early adulthood

Theories of Social and Personality Development Levinson Life structures: All roles and relationships a individual occupies — and conflicts and balances that exist between them Regards formation of intimate relationship central developmental task Cycle through periods of stability and instability See Figure 14.1 on page 381. Each period of life presents adults with new developmental challenges As adults enter a period in which a new life structure is required, there is a period of adjustment called the novice phase. In the mid-era phase, adults become more competent at meeting the new challenges through reassessment and reorganization of the life structure they created in the novice phase. Stability returns in the culmination phase, when adults have succeeded in creating a life structure that allows them to manage the demands of the new developmental challenges with more confidence. Life Structures: all roles and relationships individual occupies-- and conflicts and balance that exist among them Regards formation of intimate relationship with another adult as central developmental task of early adulthood Cycle through periods of stability and instability Structures: novice, mid-era, culmination

Figure 14.1 Levinson’s Model of Adult Development Each stable life structure is followed by period of transition in which structure is reexamined.

Theories of Social and Personality Development Emerging Adulthood Emerging adulthood: Period in which individuals experiment with options prior to taking on adult roles Tasks Relationships Developmental issues New stage proposed by Arnett Covers ages 17-22 Must address tasks such as academic, friendship, conduct, work and romance Push limits with family Experiment with adult options and multiple tasks Parts of brain governing impulse control, decision-making not yet fully mature

Theories of Social and Personality Development Roisman Developmental Task Domains in Emerging Adolescence Academic Friendship Conduct Work Romantic Skills 1-3 transfer from adolescence to adulthood Skills 4-5 require more adjustment New stage proposed by Arnett Covers ages 17-22 Must address tasks such as academic, friendship, conduct, work and romance Push limits with family Experiment with adult options and multiple tasks Parts of brain governing impulse control, decision-making not yet fully mature

Intimate Relationships Evolutionary Theory and Mate Selection Overview Focus on survival value Mating a selective process to insure survival of the species Cross-cultural research findings Overview Focus on survival value Mating a selective process to ensure survival of the species Cross-cultural research findings Men prefer physically attractive, younger women Men lower their standards on the basis of availability Women prefer men whose socio-economic status is higher than their own, and who offer earning potential and stability

Intimate Relationships Evolutionary Theory and Mate Selection Parental Investment Theory (Buss et al.) Male values Male selection criteria Female values Female selection criteria How do men and women differ in this theory? While this talks about minimum investments, both men and women realize it takes a large investment to raise a child. Therefore, men look for younger women and women look for an economic provider. Men value health and availability in mates Men less selective because of minimum physical investment in conceiving or bearing offspring Women’s investment starts with a 9 month commitment and giving birth Men seek to maximize the number of their offspring while women seek to minimize the number of their offspring

Intimate Relationships Social Role Theory and Mate Selection Reanalysis of Parental Investment Theory (Buss et al.) Sex differences are adaptations to gender roles resulting from present-day social realities rather than from natural selection Selections of high-income earning men and women Homogamy or assortive mating People are drawn by similarities in age, education, social class, ethnic group, religion, attitudes, interests, and temperament. High-income earning women select high-income earning males to provide economic support while they raise children and take a break from their careers Homogamy or assortive mating People are drawn to similar others

Intimate Relationships Marriage Prevalence More than 2 million formal weddings each year Longitudinal research suggests that most marriages endure; only 1/3 of first marriages end in divorce Average age of marriage in 1970: 21 for males and females Average age of marriage in early 21st century: 27 for males and 25 for females Unmarried couples – 89% are opposite-sex partners and 11% are same sex partners. In 2002, 8 in every 1000 adults married; 4 in every 1000 divorced. This reflects a cohort effect.

Intimate Relationships Bridal Stress “Disorder” The textbook author discusses the concept of Bridal Stress “Disorder”. What circumstances or stresses contribute to the behaviors described? Is this another way to say “Bridezilla”?

Intimate Relationships Relationship Quality Influences on marital success Values Personality characteristics of the partners Attitudes towards divorce Security of each partner’s attachment to family of origin Lots of agreement across groups about what makes marriages work! Parental attachment relationship contributes to the construction of an internal model of intimate relationships that children bring with them into marriage. Values Personality characteristics of the partners High degree of neuroticism in one or both partners leads to dissatisfaction Attitudes towards divorce Couples unopposed to divorce report more dissatisfaction with marriage The security of each partner’s attachment to his or her family of origin Once the marriage takes place, spouses must let go of their family of origin in order to build their new family unit. Arguments about in-laws is exceeded only by the frequency of disagreements about financial matters.

Figure 14.3 Ratings of Marital Success by Ethnicity Percent of respondents saying each component is very important for a successful marriage

Intimate Relationships Sex Differences in Marital Impact Males Generally benefit more than females on measures of physical and mental health Married men are healthier and live longer than unmarried men Females Married women slightly healthier than unmarried women Unmarried women healthier and happier than unmarried men See Figure 14.2 Women may be more psychologically sensitive to relationship negativity than men. Women’s physiological responses to marital quality are important determinants of relationship quality. Higher-cortisol wives are more likely to divorce.

Intimate Relationships Relationship Quality: Sternberg Emotional affection contributes to relationship quality Three key components of love Intimacy Passion Commitment See Figure 14.2 Robert Sternberg proposes 3 key components of love Intimacy – feelings that promote closeness and connectedness Passion – feeling of intense longing for union with the other person, including sexual union Commitment to a particular other – over a long period of time

Figure 14.4 Sternberg’s Theory of Love Sternberg’s theory postulates three components of love Relationships can be classified according to which of three components is present

Relationship Quality Conflict Management How a couple manages conflict is important! Validating couples Volatile couples Avoidant couples Validating couples Have disagreements but rarely let them escalate Partners express mutual respect and listen to each other Volatile couples Squabble a lot, don’t listen BUT More positive than negative with high levels of laughter and affection Avoidant couples Conflict minimizers; agree to disagree - devitalizing

Intimate Relationships Couples Likely to Divorce Hostile/engaged Hostile/detached Couples likely to divorce: Hostile/engaged – frequent hot arguments with no balancing forces Hostile/detached – fight regularly, rarely look at each other, lack affection and support

Intimate Relationships Consequences of Divorce Increased physical and emotional illness Serious economic hardships, especially for women Disruption of sequence and timing of family roles Strong feelings of failure, loss of self-esteem, loneliness Divorce associated with increased physical and emotional illness—higher rates of: Automobile accidents Suicide Lost days from work Depression Often, divorce accompanies serious economic hardships, especially for women Divorced men improve their economic base Divorced women have 40 - 50% decline in income; hardest on working-class women with low levels of education Disruption of sequence and timing of family roles Remarriage expands the number of years of childbearing for many divorced women

Intimate Relationships Cohabiting Heterosexual Couples Cohabiters Less satisfied when married and more likely to divorce Less homogamous or similar to each other Either fully committed to future marriage or ambiguous Differences in cohabited couples include: Race, religious beliefs, educational levels, socioeconomic status. On average, those cohabiting before marriage are: Less satisfied with their marriages More likely to divorce Two types of cohabiting couples Couples who are fully committed to a future marriage Couples in which the relationship between partners is ambiguous

Intimate Relationships Cohabiting Heterosexual Couples: Teachman Prior sexual and cohabitational histories are major factors in divorce Cohabiting couples who intend to marry Share work loads at home Happier during cohabitation May do a better job communicating Married women whose premarital cohabitation and sexual experiences were limited to a future husband are no more likely to divorce than women who didn’t cohabit

Intimate Relationships Gay and Lesbian Couples: Satisfaction Satisfaction related to Similar backgrounds and equal relationship length commitment Attachment security Dissatisfaction related to Neuroticism in one or both partners 600,000 U.S. households headed by partners of same sex

Intimate Relationships Gay and Lesbian Couples Differences More dependent on each other for social support Power and tasks are equally divided by couple Lesbians insist on sexual exclusivity whereas gay men regard sexual fidelity as negotiable More dependent on each other for social support May be isolated from original family Build families of choice – a stable partner and a circle of close friends for support Power and tasks are equally divided by the couple More true of lesbians than of gay couples Lesbians insist on sexual exclusivity whereas gay men regard sexual fidelity as negotiable in most couples Expectations for monogamy among lesbian females is more like that of heterosexuals Gay males do not require sexual fidelity as often Males require sex more frequently (evolutionary perspective)

Intimate Relationships Singlehood Many single adults: Prefer singlehood Participate in intimate relationships that are not “partnered” Maintain close relationships with families of origin and close friends Many adults single by preference Associated with greater autonomy and capacity for personal growth Many adults participate in intimate relationships that do not involve cohabiting or marriage—”partnered” Close relationships with families of origin likely to be a source of support Close friends play prominent role in social networks 58% or adults between 20-34 never married; two-third married by mid 40s Choosing and affirming singlehood helps protect singles from the negative health consequences associated with singlehood.

Parenthood Overview 85% of parents cite relationship of child most fulfilling life aspect Transition to parenthood stressful Transition happens with other social relationships also in transition

Parenthood The Desire to Become a Parent Large majority of young adults desire to be parents More men than women desire to be parents; view parenting as life-enriching Expectant fathers become emotionally attached to their unborn children

Parenthood Delaying Parenthood Decisions to delay parenting Enrolled in post-secondary education Delayed marriage; believe best environment for raising children is within marriage Underpinned by contemporary social clock Delayed marriage Majority believe best environment for raising children is within marriage

Stop and Think What do you believe are the three greatest adjustments that new parents face? Are these adjustments short-term? Long-term? Even emotionally healthy mothers must adapt to parenthood New parents may argue about care-taking duties Many are sleep-deprived Less times for conversations, sex, simple affection or routine chores Extended families and cultural rituals may ease the transition.

Parenthood Postpartum Depression Incidence Causes Symptoms Treatment 10 – 25% of new mothers Feelings of profound sadness for several weeks after birth More likely in women who produce large amounts of steroid hormones late in pregnancy More likely in unplanned pregnancies Presence of major life stressors increases the risk Depression during pregnancy is best predictor

Parenthood Developmental Impact of Parenthood Marital Satisfaction and Parenthood Division of labor issues fuel dissatisfaction Support from extended family helps Effective conflict-resolution strategies established before birth See Figure 14.3 Sensation-seeking and risky behaviors decline. Marital satisfaction tends to decline and remain low until the last child leaves home

Figure 14.5 Marital Satisfaction through the Family Life Cycle This pattern of change in marital satisfaction over the stages of the family life cycle is one of the best documented findings in family sociology research.

Parenthood Childlessness Marital satisfaction fluctuates less over time Women are more likely to have full-time continuous careers Married men whose wives were not employed were more likely to advance Women are more likely to have full-time continuous careers (but not necessarily advance more)

Parenthood Social Networks Family Most adults feel emotionally close to their parents and see or talk to them regularly. Proximity influences contact. Culture influences involvement with parents. African Americans value family connections highly. See Figure 14.4 Culture influences involvement with parents. Hispanic young adults value family ties. African Americans value family connections highly Young adults are less likely to marry Live in multi-generational households Report higher levels of warmth with parents than Whites Japanese are more connected to parents of origin than are Australian or Canadian young adults.

? ? Questions To Ponder Are you looking forward to having children? Why or why not? What characteristics of a potential mate are most important to you? What characteristics would be problematic for you? Why? Do you have a good relationship with your parents today? How often do you talk? In what situations do you seek advice? What situations would you not discuss with your parents?

Other Relationships Friends Characteristics Similar in education, social class, interests, family background and family life cycle stage Drawn from same age group; same sex Important members of social network (even exclusive online) May have more friends as young adults than later in life

Other Relationships Sex Differences in Relationship Styles Women have more close friends Women often the “kinkeeper”, correspondence, family news Young men remain competitive with friends Women have more close friends More intimate More self-disclosure More exchange of emotional support Women often the “kinkeeper”, correspondence, family news Young men remain competitive with friends Do things together

The Role of Worker Choosing an Occupation Family and educational influences of occupational choice Parent social class Family values Educational goals Families who have high career aspirations for their children produce young adults who are intrinsically motivated as employees. Family and educational influences Choose occupations in the same social class as parents Educational goals influence choice Families influence choice through value systems Valuing academic and professional achievement influences professional-level job choices Achievement in working class families is associated with moving into middle class jobs Parental moral beliefs influence young adults’ willingness to enter various occupations.

The Role of Worker Influence of Gender Sex-role definitions still designate some jobs Male jobs more varied, technical, and higher in status and income Female jobs concentrated in the service industry, and offer lower status and pay Sex-role definitions still designate some jobs as “women’s jobs” and “men’s jobs” Male jobs are more varied, technical, and higher in status and income Female jobs are concentrated in the service industry, and offer lower status and pay 1/3 of women hold clerical jobs 1/4 of women are in health care, teaching, or domestic service

The Role of Worker Personality: Holland’s Theory Types 6 basic personality types People whose personalities match their jobs more likely to be satisfied with their work See Table 14.1 6 basic personality types Each of us tend to choose and be most successful at an occupation that matches our personality See Table 14.1 for summary of Holland’s Personality Types and Work Preference

The Role of Worker Career Development: Super’s Model Stages of career development Growth stage Exploratory stage Establishment stage Maintenance stage Growth stage—learn about one’s abilities Exploratory stage—decide on job or career Establishment stage—early steps on the career ladder Maintenance stage—ends at retirement but may need to learn new skills on the job

Career Development Job Satisfaction Influences Individual personality traits High school and college preparation related to career Uncertainty about job security, employment market and job opportunities At its lowest at mid-career; usually toward end of early adulthood period

The Role of Worker Quality of Work Life (QWL) Movement QWL: Approach to enhancing job satisfaction by basing job and work place design on analyses of quality of employee experiences in organization Assume happier workers are more productive Involves innovations in how work is structured Importance of work-life balance Involves innovations in how work is structured Telecommuting—connect to workplace through telephone, computer, fax Flextime schedules Job sharing On-site childcare

The Role of Worker Sex Differences in Work Patterns Women’s work satisfaction goes up with age Most women move into and out of the labor market at least once during adulthood Why does this occur? Women’s work satisfaction goes up with age Most women move into and out of the labor market at least once during adulthood Bearing and rearing children is a key However, most mothers also have work force jobs Our culture thinks of a man as simultaneously a worker, a parent, and a spouse but has difficulty seeing a woman as all three

True or False? Our culture thinks of a man as simultaneously a worker, a parent, and a spouse but has difficulty seeing a woman as all three. Do you think this will change? Why or why not? How?